* Linds ay Young Pr ofessor in the H uma nities, Depart ment of Religiou s Studies, University of Tennessee, Kn oxville . I wi sh to t ha nk th e followi ng peop le for th eir assis tan ce w it h t he pr ep ar at ion an d/or wr it in g of t hi s e ss ay : Dr . Ma tt he ws A. Ojo, Pr ofessor H .O. Dan mole, Dr . J ona th an Reyn olds, Dr . Abdulk ade r Ta yob, an d Pr ofess or Abdullah i An-Na'im . 1. The topic of this paper forms pa r t of a wi der st ud y I a m e ng age d in for t he United Sta tes Ins tit ut e of Pea ce. S ee Rosalin d I.J . Ha cket t, N igeri a: Rel igion in th e Ba lan ce (2000) (unpu blished man uscript, on file with t he Brigham Young University Law Review ). 2. S ee infra Section II. 537 D :\ 1 9 9 9- 2\ F I N A L \ H A C -F I N 2 .W P D Ja n . 8 , 2001 Con flict in the Cla ss room: Edu cat ion a l In st it u t ion s a s S it es of Religiou s Tolera nce/In tolera nce in Niger ia Rosalind I.J . Hackett* I. IN T R O D U C T I O N In Ni ger ia , black Afr i ca ’s m ost popu lous n at ion, it migh t be expected tha t educa t ion wou ld be a con ten t ious is sue in t e rms of its provision, cont rol, form, a nd conten t. I a m concer ned in t h i s Art icle wit h t h e w a ys in wh ich ed u ca t ion a l in st i t ut ions—whet her pr ima ry, s econda ry, or te rt iar y—ha ve been conn ect ed to the gr owt h of re ligious conflict in Niger ia over t he last two decades. How might Nigerian schools and in st it u t ion s of h igh er lea rn in g con st it u te s it es for gen er a t in g or coun ter ing religious intolera nce?1 There ha ve, in fact, been a nu mber of incidents of religiou sly-link ed violence involving N igeria n s tuden ts s ince t he 1980s.2 However, efforts t o utilize educationa l resour ces to ach ieve re ligious ha rmony and na t iona l un ity a l so exi st . Educa- t iona l inst itut ions ma y thu s be viewed as m icrocosmic versions of mor e m acrocosm ic socio-polit ica l t r en ds . F ur ther more, s uch inst i tu t ions cons t it u t e impor tan t br eeding gr ounds for reli giou s ideas and movements. In tha t vein , P ar t II of th is Art icle exa min es the h is tory of reli giou s edu cat ion in N igeria , focus ing p r imar ily on p r imary and seconda ry school edu ca t ion . Par t I II examines the role s tu - den t organ iza t ions have pl ayed in shaping r e ligious educa t ion D :\ 1 9 9 9- 2\ F I N A L \ H A C -F I N 2 .W P D Ja n . 8 , 2001 538 BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY LAW REVIEW [1999 3. Niger ia is a m ult ireligious sta te, wit h a ppr oxima t ely forty-five percent Muslims, thirt y-seven percent Christians, an d the rem ainder adh ering to localized, indigenous forms of religious pra ctice, claimin g no religiou s affiliation , or belongin g to one of the Eas tern -related or s piritu al science religious organizat ions which ha ve becom e par t of th e re ligious la nds cape in th e las t few de cades . S ee, e.g., RO S AL I N D I.J . H ACKETT , RE L I G IO N I N CALAB AR : TH E RE L I G I O U S LIFE AND H ISTO RY OF A N IGE RIAN TOWN (1989). However, s ta tist ics concernin g religious affiliation ar e u na vai lab le or unr eliable. In fact , religious affilia t i on was exclu ded from th e la st cen su s in 1991 for fear of polit ical ma nip ula tion . 4. Officially, Nigeria is a secular stat e with freed om of religion gu ar an teed in t h e Nigeria n Con stit ut ion. S ee N IG . CO N S T . (1979) ch. I , § 10; N IG . CON S T . (P romulga t ion Decree of 1989) No. 12. Section 11 of the lat ter s tates , “The Governmen t of the F eder at ion or of a St at e sha ll not a dop t any r el ig ion a s S ta t e Religion.” N IG . CO N S T . (1979) ch. I, pt. II, § 11. Pend in g t h e p romulga t ion o f t he Con st itu tion writt en by th e Constitu tional Conferen ce in 1995, subsequent ly approved by the Head of State, the Government observes some provisions of the 1 979 and 1989 Constitutions. Th e de cre e su spe nd ing th e 19 79 Con st itu tion was no t r epea led and the 1989 Constitution has n ot been implemented. 5. U.N. GAOR , 36 th Se ss ., p t. 1, a t 3 32, U. N. Doc. G A/654 6 (19 81). discourse an d policy in Niger ia. P a r t IV discu ss es reli giou s edu cat ion in t he spe cific conte xt of un iver sit ies. P ar ts II th rough IV of t h is Art icle thus e xplor e s pe cific exa mples of re ligious confl ict in the rea lm of educa t ion . The exa mples tha t I u t ilize for an a lyt ica l d iscuss ion are var ied in tha t some perta in directly to curricular ma tters, as in the case of re ligious e du ca t ion , wh ile other s con cer n reli giou s act ivities at educat ional sites . Som e exa mples a re m ore concern ed wit h cons tit ut iona l issu es, n ame ly religious bia s in the educational sector and u n e qu a l access to s t a te and federa l r e sources. However , a ll of t hes e exa mples bear on the re la t ionsh ip of reli gion and t h e sta te in a mu ltireligious society such as Niger ia ,3 as w ell as on freedom of reli gion .4 Adop t ing edu cat ion as a lens th rough wh ich we view rights per t a in ing to freedom of religion or belief has the methodolog ica l and theore t ica l advantage of ob ligin g u s t o conside r thes e ques t ion s at local “grassroots,” regional, and nat ional levels. My ana lys is of thes e exa mples lea ds me t o conclude in Pa r t V of th i s Ar t i cle tha t the Niger ian system which encoura g es a confes siona l approach to r eligious in st ru ction in the schools has con t r ibu ted to t he fu rt her polar izat ion of Nigerian society a lon g reli giou s lines. The system also leads to probable viola t ion s of the principles of religious freedom embodied in the U.N. Decla ra t ion on the E lim in a t ion of All F orms of I n t olerance and of Dis cr im in a t ion Ba se d on Religion or Bel ief (1981).5 I D :\ 1 9 9 9- 2\ F I N A L \ H A C -F I N 2 .W P D Ja n . 8 , 2001 537] CONFLICT IN TH E CLASSROOM 539 6. T h e popu lat ion of N iger ia i s ge ne ra lly h eld to b e over 110 m illion , wit h abou t 250 ethnic groups. The thr ee main peoples are the Igbo, Yoruba, and th e Ha u s a . Islam was in tr oduced in to th e count ry in th e fourt eent h cent ur y an d by th e n ineteen th centur y had become the r eligion of th e Ha usa , Fu lan i, and Kan ur i. Chr is t ian i ty wa s in tr odu ced in to t he sou th of the countr y, mainly by British missionar ies in the m id-nineteenth centur y, but it was n ot unt il the twent ieth centu ry tha t Christ ianity est ablished its elf wit h th e aid of Britis h colonia l ru le. S ee Don Ohadike, Muslim -Christian Conflict and Political Instability in N igeria, in TH E ROLE OF RELIGION I N NATION AL LI F E: RE F L E C T IO N S O N RECEN T E X P E R IE N C E S I N N IGERIA 102- 03 (J .O. Hu nw ick ed ., 1 992 ). 7. S ee A.E. Ek oko & L.O. Ama di, Religion and S tability in N igeria, in 9 N IGERIA S I N C E INDEPE NDENCE : TH E F IRST 25 YEARS 110 (J .A. At an da et al . ed s., 198 9); E.U.M. Igbo, Towards Di st r ibu t ive and Social Ju stice in Nigeria, in NE W ST R AT E G IE S FOR CURBING E THNIC AND RE L I G I O U S CO N F L I CT S I N N IGE R I A 202 (F.U . Oka for ed., 199 7). 8. S ee J ona th an T. Reyn olds, The Polit ics of History: The Legacy of the S o k oto Caliphate in N igeria, J . AS I AN & AF R . ST U D., Ju ne 1997, at 50. 9. The forme r F ed er al Min ist er of Ed uca ti on an d for me r S ecr et ar y of t he Nat iona l Un ivers ities Comm ission , Pr ofessor J ubr il Aminu , spoke a bout t his con t inu ing educa tiona l inequ ality in 1994: “Certa in sect ion s of th e country will be high ly dis tu rb ed ab ou t t he ir fut ur e in a u ni te d N ige ri a i f th e y s t udy t he pa tt er n of higher edu cation al oppor tu nit ies in th e coun tr y.” Igbo, supra note 7, at 210 (quotin g TELL , Nov . 14 , 19 94, at 15). t he refore recomm end th at th e cur ren t s yst em b e ab an doned in favor of one in wh ich nonconfession al r eligious ed uca tion is pr esen te d in an objective n on-nor ma tive wa y. II. H I S TO R Y O F RE L I G I O U S IS S U E S IN P R I M A RY AN D SE C O N D A R Y E D U C A T I O N Niger ia, li k e m a n y ot h e r Afr i ca n na t ion-s ta tes tha t have emer ged from under the cloak of colon ial ism, has sough t t o negot i at e equitably its ext en sive e thn ic a nd r eli giou s plu r a li sm ,6 a n d ch a n nel s uch diver si ty in to na t ion a l int egr a t ion . Many chan ges have been required to divest t he coun t ry of it s colonia l h er it age, not the least of which were educa t iona l r e forms . The much ta lked abou t imba lance in the coun t ry , th en a s n ow, stem s from th e ad van ta ges ga ined by those who received Wes te rn educa t ion .7 I t was in the Sou th of the coun t ry tha t Chr ist ian m ission ar ies wer e most act ive in esta blish ing sch ools . Be cause of the Br it ish pol icy of noninterventionism toward the Muslims in the Nor th , the l a tt e r did n ot gain as man y of the benefits of West ern edu cat ion as their southern n eighbors.8 This r esu lt ed in a la s t ing and dest abilizin g dichot omy t ha t is firm ly im pr in ted on the historical memory of Nigerian Muslims.9 D :\ 1 9 9 9- 2\ F I N A L \ H A C -F I N 2 .W P D Ja n . 8 , 2001 540 BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY LAW REVIEW [1999 10. S ee ELIZABETH IS I C H E I, A H I S TO R Y O F N IGERIA 202 (198 3); Abd ul la hi A. An - N a ’i m , Islam and Hu m an R igh t s in S ah elia n A fri ca, in AFRI CAN ISLAM AND ISLAM IN AFRICA 79, 83 (E va Ev er s R osa nd er & Da vid Wes te rl un d e ds ., 1 997 ). 11. S ee Oha dike , supra note 6, at 104. 12. Igb o, supra note 7, at 212 (quotin g TELL , N ov. 1 4, 1 994 , a t 1 3). 13. “Re ligious ed uca ti on ” is ge ne ra lly t ak en to r efe r to rel ig ious and mora l ins tr uct ion of a confessional or denom ina tiona l var iety. “Religious kn owledge” is anoth er t e rm employed to mean the same th ing. These des igna tions can also refer to educa t ion abou t religion, a s a globa l socio-cultu ra l, hist orica l ph enome non in all i t s var ied ma nifest at ions. Gen era lly aut hors ma ke a distin ction by r e fe r r ing to the latter as “reli giou s st udie s” or “rel ig ious ed uca t ion .” S ee, e.g., DAVID CHID ES TER ET AL ., RELIGION I N P UBLIC E DUCATION: OPTI ONS FOR A NEW SO U T H AFRICA (2d e d. 1 994 ). Niger ian Ch r is t ia ns, for their pa r t , s t ill ha rbor fea r s of pol it ica l domina tion by th e n or the rn Mus lim Hausa-Fu lan i peoples. They rem ember th e jihad movemen t s of t he n ine t een th cen tu ry that promoted a new, exclus ive, int olera nt , an d mi li t an t Is la mic or ien ta t ion .10 Nor ha ve th ey forgot t en the Isla miza tion pol icy of “On e N or th , On e P eop le,” promoted by nor the rn Mus lim lea der s, wh ich g a ined momentum dur ing the First Repu blic of the e ar ly 1960s.11 The major i ty of the coun t ry’s poli t ica l leade rs h ave b een from th e Nor th (alt hou gh not alwa ys Mu slim ). Thu s, wh ile the va r ious governments have employed differing quota st ra t egies to try t o reflect a “federal char a ct er ,” Niger ia ns h ave e ver y r ea son to be d oubt fu l of t he concept of fa i r p lay, wi th nepot i sm and cor rup t ion r ife a t every level of Nigerian life. A sta tem ent by a form er presiden t ia l a sp ir an t , Alha ji Mait am a S ule, r eflects t he p reva iling percept ions abou t cu l tu ra l differences which militate against na t iona l un ity : Ever yon e h as a g ift fr om God . Th e N ort h er n er s a re en dow e d b y God wit h lea de rs h ip q u al itie s. T h e Yor u ba m an kn ows h ow t o e a r n a livin g and has d ip loma t i c qua l i t ie s . The Igbo is g i ft ed in comm erce , t r ade an d t echno log ica l inn ova t ion . God so c rea t ed u s ind iv idua l ly fo r a pu r pose and wi th d i f fe ren t g i ft s .12 More specifically, relig ious educa t ion ,13 which in the past was often noth ing more than the Chr is t ia n religiou s ins tr uct ion of th e ear ly mission schools, has ha d to accomm odate t he reli giou s needs of Musl ims (arguably more numerous in Niger ia today t h a n Ch r is t ia ns) a nd d o just ice t o eve ryon e’s t r adi t ion a l cu l tu ra l he r it age. The pla ce of tr ad itiona l cultu ra l an d reli giou s values in t he s chool cur ricu lum never ceases to gener at e debat e D :\ 1 9 9 9- 2\ F I N A L \ H A C -F I N 2 .W P D Ja n . 8 , 2001 537] CONFLICT IN TH E CLASSROOM 541 14. S ee, e.g., AFRI CAN TRADITIONAL RE L I G IO N S I N RE L I G I O U S E DUCATION: A RESOURCE BO O K W I TH SPECIAL REFERE NCE TO ZIMBABWE (G. t e r Haar et a l. eds., 199 2); TOYIN F ALOLA E T AL ., TH E MILI TARY F A C TO R I N N IGERIA , 1966-1985 a t 140 (199 4); R.A. Akanmidu , Th e Concept of the Principle of ‘Live and Let Live’ in a Pluralist Rel igiou s S tat e: The Case of African R eligion in N igeria, i n ST U D IE S IN RE L I G IO U S UN D E R S TA N D IN G I N N I G E R I A 227 (R.D. Abubakre et al. eds., 1993); P. Ade Dopamu, Afr ican Rel igion in N igerian Society: Past, Present and the Future , in ST U D IE S I N RE L I G I O U S UN D E R S TA N D IN G I N N IGERIA , supra . 15. S ee GERRIE TER H AAR , F A IT H O F OUR F ATHERS : ST U D I E S O N RE LI G I O U S E DUCATION I N SU B-SA H AR A N AFRICA 146 (199 0). 16. S ee, e.g., P AT WI L L I A M S & TO Y IN F ALOLA, RE L I G I O N IM P A CT O N TH E NATION STATE 30-6 9 (19 95). 17. MA T T H E W H A S SA N KU K AH & TO Y IN F ALOLA, RE L I G IO N MILITANCY AND SELF - ASSERTION : ISLAM AND P O L I TI C S IN N IGERIA 80 (1 996 ). 18. S ee id . at 80-86. 19. S ee id . at 80. 20. S ee id. at 81. among edu cators, politicians, government officials and parent s.14 Wh en Afr ica n t r adi t ion a l r eli gion s a re t r ea ted in the litera tur e, it is often a s a n a ppen da ge to Ch ris tia n or Isla mic Religious Studies.15 Oth er a rt icles ha ve docum ent ed in m or e det ail the se nsi t ive rela t ion sh ip between reli gion and e du ca t ion in the Nigerian state, in terms of its history and p olit ica l dynamics.16 I can only attempt to high light some a spect s of this history which bear on questions of rights. In the n ine teen th cen tury, in wha t was then re fe r red to as the “West ern Region” of th e count ry, t he in digen ous Qu r’an ic and nascen t Christ ian m issionar y form s of educat ion existed side by side.17 However, th e latt er began to predomin at e by v ir tue of the career opportu nities brought by its associa t ion with th e colonial governm ent .18 While some Muslims allowed th eir childr en to a tt en d t he se s chools, t he major i ty d id not because of the fea r of Chr ist ian in doct rin at ion. However , it shou ld be noted tha t Br it i sh offi ce r s had , a s fa r back as the 1880s, sought to accomm odate t he dem an ds of Muslims by separa t ing the teaching of English from that of Christia n it y, and by esta blishing Governm ent Muslim S chools.19 These sch ools did not last beyond the late 1920s but they provided an ear ly model for th e coexistence of Wes ter n ed uca t ion and I s lam.20 As a r esu lt, m an y Mus lim comm un itie s bega n request ing schools an d cha llengin g th e govern men t over its Chr ist ian bias. When govern men t subven t ions were not forth coming, th ese comm un ities ra ised t heir own funds th rough D :\ 1 9 9 9- 2\ F I N A L \ H A C -F I N 2 .W P D Ja n . 8 , 2001 542 BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY LAW REVIEW [1999 21. S ee id . 22. S ee H.O. Da nm ole, Islam and Party Poli t ics in La gos: A S tu dy of th e Un ited Muslim Party 1953-1966, J . IN S T . MU S L I M MIN ORI TY AF F ., Ju ly 1990, at 338-42. 23. S ee id . at 339. 24. S ee IS I C H E I, supra note 10, at 468. 25. S ee WI L L I AM S & F ALOLA, supra note 16, at 45-46. numerous Muslim societies such a s th e Young Ans ar -Ud-Din (192 3), th e Society of P r om ot in g Mu sl im Kn owle dge (19 47) and the Muslim Congr ess of Nigeria (194 8).21 These societies reflected the change in a t t it ude a mong ma ny Mus lims–th ey were now p rep ared to em br ace We st er n ed uca t ion and ideas of progress. When th e pr omise s of th e West er n Re gion governmen t t o accommoda te the educa t iona l needs of the Musl im const it uen cy failed to mate r ia l ize in t he e ar ly 1950s, t he U nit ed Mu slim Par ty (UMP) began exert ing pres sur e.22 P rot e st s were organized over the Mus lims ha ving t o chan ge th eir n am es in Chr ist ian sch ools and h avin g t o take Chr is t ia n Religiou s Kn owledge in a st a te s chool. The U MP de mande d a more equ ita ble pla n of edu cat ion for Niger ia t ha t t ook account of the l a rge Muslim p resen ce. They also pres sed for bett er a cadem ic t ra in ing in Is la mic la w, a nd for a Ch a ir of Islam ic Studies t o be creat ed in t he Un iversity College, Ibadan (then st i ll a branch of the U niversi ty of Lon don ).23 Polit ica l independence was g ran ted to Nigeria in 1960.24 The subsequen t civilian a n d militar y government s both opted for s t rong s t a t e con t rol of educa t ion . Dur ing the 1970s and the per iod of the oil boom , volu n ta ry a gen cy schools , such as t hose r u n by the Christian m issions, were taken over by the stat e in an att empt to ensure secularism.25 However , th e ta keover did not pu t a n en d t o claims of religiou s dis crim ina t i on i n the edu cat ion sect or. In fact, it s erve d t o aggra vat e th ese claim s in many ways . In t h e Sou th , n ew st a te-con t rolled e du ca t ion sys t ems ap pea red to ben efit Ch r is t ians . Bet te r equ ipped and more numerous , Sou thern Chr i st i ans were able to in flu en ce grea t er numbers of s tude nt s, a ided by t he p olicy of reli giou s freedom an d t he t each ing of religious kn owledge in a ll th e schools. Musl ims in t he s out hwe st complain ed a bout Chr ist ian en t r enchmen t , while in the North it was th e Chr i st i ans who compla ined about th e failure of the local governmen ts to su pply D :\ 1 9 9 9- 2\ F I N A L \ H A C -F I N 2 .W P D Ja n . 8 , 2001 537] CONFLICT IN TH E CLASSROOM 543 26. S ee id. at 48-49. 27. S ee KUKAH & F ALOLA, supra note 17, at 155. 28. S ee WI L L I AM S & F ALOLA, supra note 16, at 48-49. 29. S ee Oha dike , supra note 6, at 106-07. It is important to note her e t h at Islam ic lea rn ing and it s emphasi s upon li t e racy had preceded the a dvent of Western edu cat ion by several centuries. 30. S te fan Re ichmuth, Islamic Learning and Its Interaction with “Western” Ed uca tion in Ilorin, N igeria, in MUSLIM IDENTITY AND SOCI A L CH A N G E I N SU B- SAHAR AN AFRICA 179 (Lou is B re nn er ed ., 1 993 ). 31. Id . Chr i st i an teachers.26 Furt hermore, Christians resented t he govern men t ta keover of Chris tia n-bu ilt schools. In Kaduna Sta t e in the N or th , Ch r is t ia ns cla im ed tha t the t akeove r of th eir schools was in itiat ed by Muslims , and th at th e move to make I s lamic educa t ion compulsory in th e schools (when Christ ianity wa s not ) was further evidence of the special status of Islam in th e eyes of th e govern men t. 27 Amidst th is cont roversy rega r din g ed uca t ion and r eli gion , the govern men t int roduced the U nive rsa l P r im ary E du ca t ion (UPE) schem e in 19 76. Howeve r, t he s yst em w as ina dequ at ely prep ar ed for th e ma ssive in flux of stu den ts th at followed it s in t roduct ion . People w ere quick t o blam e th e govern men t ta keover of the schools, and a t t r ibu te the fa l ling educa t ion stan dards to the abs en ce of r eli giou s inst ruct ion .28 Some Musl ims saw the UPE scheme as a conspiracy to des t roy Islam ic education an d disru pt t he en tire Mu slim commun ity by producing children wit h litt le knowledge of Islam an d prone t o immora l p ract i ces.2 9 Yet in Ilorin , a la rge Mu slim city, t he educa t iona l expan sion of th e mid-1970s seem s t o ha ve benefitted the pr iva te Ara bic schools in the t own, creatin g jobs for t eacher s a nd s tude nt s. Is la mic subject s, as w ell as Ar abic, became esta blished a t differen t levels with in t he p ublic educa t iona l system. So, contrary to many fears, as Stefan Reich muth poin ts ou t in his sur vey on Isla mic edu cat ion in Ilorin , ther e h as b een a “cont in uous in ter act ion of the di ffe ren t forms of ‘West ern ’ an d Is lam ic educa tion in N iger ia.”30 As he as tu tely obser ves, t his typ e of inter act ion “calls r a t her for a model wh er eby ed uca tion al s yst em s a re seen as re su ltin g from conflict an d in te ra ction w ith in a given s ociety.”31 It wa s exp ected by some t ha t d ur ing t he S econd Rep ublic the economically weakened government would re tu rn the sch ools to t heir pr evious own ers . But th at was not to be u nt il a D :\ 1 9 9 9- 2\ F I N A L \ H A C -F I N 2 .W P D Ja n . 8 , 2001 544 BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY LAW REVIEW [1999 32. S ee WI L L I AM S & F ALOLA, supra note 16, at 50-57. 33. S ee id. at 51. 34. S ee id . at 52. 35. F o r add ition al dis cuss ion, see D.O.S. N OIBI, YORU BA MU S L I M YO U T H AN D CHR ISTI AN -SP O N S OR E D E DUCATION (1987). Interest ingly, despite the problem s Mus lim you ths ha ve e xpe ri en ced, N oibi d oes n ot a dvoca te re mov al of r eligious edu cation . He says th at , un lik e pe ople in W est er n cu ltu re s, t he ma jori ty of N i ge r i a ns a re in fa vor of religiou s edu cation . See id. nu mber of volun ta ry a gen cies , n amely the Roman Ca tholic a nd Methodist Ch urches , sued the Lagos St at e Govern men t in 1981 for failing to han d over the p rivat e p r im a r y schools. The prev ious owners fina lly won the ir case a ft e r an appea l in 1986. The Lagos case was obser ved wit h in te re st ar oun d t he count ry. Some Ca thol ics in the East s t aged demons t ra t ions with the same int en t, bu t d ifferin g re act ions from governors and opposition from th e teachers’ union produced mixed results. Another round of con t roversies over r eligion in t he s chools was spa rk ed in th e 1980s in Oyo State in th e south western part of t he coun t ry by th e non complian ce of some s chool prin cipals with th e cons t itu t iona l ly guaran teed freedoms of worsh ip and reli giou s inst ruct ion .32 The st at e iss ue d a circula r d et ailin g th e r igh t s of pupils a nd th e re spon sibilit ies of th e schools t o avoid reli giou s discr imin at ion an d r ivalr y. Sepa ra te m orn ing de vot ion s were t o be observed; no mosques cou ld be bu ilt in “Chr ist i a n ” schools; and no cha pels could be bu ilt in “Mus lim” schools.33 But th e circular a ggravated, rat her th an pacified, Chr ist ian -Muslim tensions.3 4 Chr ist ian s sa w th e circula r a s evid en ce of t he governmen t bowing to Musl im demands. From th eir side , th e Mu slim s cont inu ed t o prot est , as th ey h a d on prev ious occas ions s ince t he 1 950s, t he forced p ar ticipa t i on of t h eir child ren in Ch r is t ia n wor sh ip and r eli giou s inst ruct ion , desp it e the ma ndat e of the Oyo State Ministry of Educa t ion . Musl ims also compla ined t ha t t he st at e govern men t fa i led to su pply t eache r s and t ext s for the teaching of Islamic Studies. The re ply w a s t he usual one: qualified Muslim teachers and necessar y supplies wer e not a vailable.35 Another cont roversy developed in nea rby L agos St a te, w hich was contr olled by th e Un ity P ar ty of Nigeria (UP N). In 1982, the Gove rnor pr ovoked the wra th of th e M u sl im s by ban nin g jum at, or Frida y prayers , on school grounds. Mu slims saw th is a s a den ial of th eir right s an d a political ploy to appea se D :\ 1 9 9 9- 2\ F I N A L \ H A C -F I N 2 .W P D Ja n . 8 , 2001 537] CONFLICT IN TH E CLASSROOM 545 36. But c.f. DAVID D. LAITIN, H EGEMONY AND CU L T U RE : P O L ITICS AND RE L I G IO U S CHANGE AM O N G TH E YORUBA 129-35 (1986) (arguin g t ha t r eligi ous clea vag es a mon g the Yoru ba we re no t p olit icize d a s m uch as th ey m igh t h av e be en ). 37. The “F r iday Qu estion ,” i.e., whet her th e Mus lim h oly day sh ould be a public ho liday in Niger ia as Sunday i s fo r Chr i s t ians , has long spa rk ed he at ed deba te in Niger ia . I.L . Aki nt ola ’s p ub lica ti on on th e t opic a rt icu lat es t he Mu slim sen se of dis crim ina tion on th is issu e an d th e cam paign for a “free Fr iday.” S ee I .L. AKINTOLA , TH E F RID AY QUESTION (199 3). 38. S ee N IELS KASTEFELT , RELIGION AND P O L I TI C S IN N IGERIA : A STUD Y IN MIDDLE BELT CHRISTIANITY 41-4 2 (19 94). Chr istians.36 The crisis was res olved by th e decision of all UPN contr olled st at es t o close s chools ever y Fr ida y at 1:00 p.m .37 When th e Second Re pu blic ende d in 1983 a nd th e milit ar y took over once more, th ere wer e aga in var ied react ions from the mi li t ary governors with r egard to the priva te ownership of sch ools by religious b odies . Some gover nors in t rodu ced fees or with held funds from schools, whi le others re tu rned the schools to th eir religious owners. Th e fu r t h e r dete r iora t ion of the econ omy in the late 1980s forced a recons idera t ion of the issues, and ma ny schools reverted to the voluntar y agencies. It i s impor t an t t o reca l l tha t Chr is t ian i ty and Isla m fu nct ion bot h as min orit y an d m ajor ity r eligions in t he Niger ian conte xt, depending upon geograph ica l and h is tor ica l ci rcumstances . The cases ad um bra ted above r eflect th e pr evail ing s itua t ion in the South of the coun t ry . In the Musl im-domina ted Nor th , Chr is t ians find t hem selves in the minor i ty, cons tan t ly having to negot iat e th eir p ublic pr esen ce with th e Mu slim ma jorit y. While space does not pe rmit any lengt hy expos it ion of th e h i story of inter religious t ensions over edu cational sp ace an d objectives in th e Muslim-domina ted N orth , some selected examples point t o the wa ys in which discrim inat ion may be exper ien ced by t he Chr ist ian min orit y. In the Nor th , th e a ct ivit ies of Ch r is t ia ns in the edu ca t ion a l rea lm have often been viewed with suspicion by Muslims. These act ivities also caus ed concern a mong Br it i sh colon ia l aut horities, who were pr otective of th e Mu slim ter rit ories in th e Nor th . An exa mp le of such concern comes from th e Midd le Belt ar ea of Nigeria. In his study of th e Dan ish Su dan Unit ed Mis sion (a Lu the ran grou p a ct ive in the r egion since 19 13), Niels K a st efelt de scr ibe s h ow a pa r t icu la r form of educa t ion , the Classes for Religious Ins t r uct ion , t ook on pol it ica l impor tance in Adamawa Prov ince in nor t h eas te rn Niger ia .38 D :\ 1 9 9 9- 2\ F I N A L \ H A C -F I N 2 .W P D Ja n . 8 , 2001 546 BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY LAW REVIEW [1999 39. Id . at 41. 40. Id . 41. Id . at 41-42. 42. It is worth n oting that the school was origina lly a Roma n Ca th olic ins tit ut ion by the name of “Queen of Apostles College.” I t was r enamed Queen Amina College at th e tim e of the govern men t t ak eover in 1972. By 1987, a fairly even ba la nce of Mu sli m a nd Ch ri st ia n p up ils ha d be en ach ieved. S ee J ibrin Ibr ah im, L es Un ifor m es des Ly céenn es N igér ian es, 29 PO L I TI Q U E AF R I C AI N E 102 (198 8). 43. S ee id . 44. S ee id . 45. S ee id. These classes “had a st at us bet ween ordin ar y school class es and reli giou s ins tr uct ion clas ses .”39 They were viewed by the British and the Fu lan i -domina ted Nat ive Author ities as “poten tia l cen t r es of political unr est, in which t h e Chr istian s were engaged in clan dest ine p olitical a ctivit ies.”40 The Fu lan i au thor i t ie s—who fu r the r v iewed th e class es a s br eedin g grounds for West er n-ed uca te d polit ical lea der s—sough t t o preven t new class es from openin g. For t heir pa r t , the Chr is t ians saw the h ind ran ce s t o eva ngel ism as “pa r t of th e overa ll Fu lan i policy of sup pr essin g th e Chr i st i ans and favour ing t he expa ns ion of Isla m.”41 Sometim es such interreligious tensions can be projected on to public symb ols. This wa s th e case in J uly 1987 when a d isagreement over school uniforms flar ed u p a t an elite girls’ sch ool i n Kaduna , a ma jor cit y with a major i ty Chr is t ian popu lat ion in t he Nor th of the count ry. 42 F r om June of tha t year, the Mus lim studen ts bega n t o cl a im the r ight t o wea r a Mus lim unifor m (pa nta loons u nde r a loose -fit t in g dr es s). 43 They were in p ar t in fluen ced by t he na tion al ca mp aign of th e Mu slim reviva list s, as well as the Musl im St ude nt s’ Society, which advocated appropriate dress for Muslim women . Before th e s t a t e government had reached a de cis ion on the m at ter , some of t h e fema le st ud ent s bega n we ar ing t he u niform an d in sist ing tha t a l l s tuden t s confor m . Th is sp ar ked a coun te r-cam pa ign among th e Chr ist ian stude nts w ho cla im ed tha t they d id not need to wear such un iforms since they were designated as Muslim .44 Th ey a lso poin ted out the con se qu en ces of a differen tiat ed uniform. They would stand out as Chr istians and th i s could be a s ecurity r isk given th e g rave religious r iots th ree mont hs ea rlier in Kadu na Sta te. 45 D :\ 1 9 9 9- 2\ F I N A L \ H A C -F I N 2 .W P D Ja n . 8 , 2001 537] CONFLICT IN TH E CLASSROOM 547 46. S ee id . 47. S ee id . at 103. 48. S ee id . 49. S ee F O C U S: P U B L IC AT I ON O F T H E F E L L OW S H I P O F CH R I S T I AN STUDENTS 4-5 (199 6). 50. Pr ofess or H.O. Danm ole reports t hat his wife, Dr. B.T. Danmole, witnessed regula r an d fr equ en t a ccus at ions of bia s in th e pu blic e du cat ion s y s tem whil e s e rving as Commissioner of Education in Oyo stat e between November 1997 a n d Ju ne 1998. S ee Int ervie w with Pr ofessor H .O. Dan mole (Sep t. 12, 19 98). 51. S ee Per sona l Comm un ication from Dr . Ma t t hews A. Ojo (Se pt . 29, 1 998) (on file wit h a ut ho r). Nei ther the in ter ven t ion of the P aren t Teachers ’ Ass ocia t ion , th e closur e of the s chool, n or the decis ion of th e s t a t e government to au thor ize two un iforms cou ld ca lm the angry stu dent s. When t he school was reopened t he st uden ts drew up en emy lines and decla red war on each other . Th e p olice had to eventua lly intervene with t ear gas.46 The school was aga in closed, and th i s t ime many of the st a ff and pupils were tr an sferred before it reop ened .47 Desp it e t he loca lized na ture of the incide nt , it w as seen as sym pt omat ic of the growing polarization of Muslims and Christians. 48 While the Queen Amina College conflict stem m ed from religiou s issu es , even a min or a lt er ca t ion of a nonreli giou s na tu re in a sch ool set tin g ma y flare up int o a clash with reli giou s dimen sions. This was th e case in 1996 a t a Governmen t Scien ce Seconda ry S chool an d Tea cher s’ College in Tor o, Bauchi State. A disciplina ry inciden t where a Chr is t ian prefect slapp ed a reca lcit r an t Mu sl im st ude nt led to an ou tbreak of Musl im-Chr is t ian host ilities on th e ne ighbor ing campuses, with mutua l des t ruct ion of p roper ty and s tone- th rowin g. There were th rea ts of violen ce a nd e vid en ce of s tuden t s entering the sacred sites of th e opposin g group with in ten t t o cause ha rm. I t t ook sever a l in ter ven t ion s by st a ff, loca l govern men t officials, an d finally, the police before t he patt ern of angry retaliation was halted.49 Accusa t ion s of bias contin ue t o resu rfa ce from t ime t o tim e in th e pu blic e du ca t ion sys t em.50 Du r in g t he fir st week of Septem ber 1998, some Musl im s, led by a wom an activis t and form er Deputy Governor , La teefa t Okunnu , demons t ra ted a t the Gove rnor ’s office in Lagos, claimin g tha t t heir childr en wer e bein g su bjected t o Chr ist ian pr opaga nd a in Lagos p ublic schools.51 A more violent incident occurr ed on December 11, D :\ 1 9 9 9- 2\ F I N A L \ H A C -F I N 2 .W P D Ja n . 8 , 2001 548 BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY LAW REVIEW [1999 52. S ee Obed Min chak pu, Fou r Churches Destroyed in N igeria, CO M P A S S DIRECT , J an . 22, 1999, at 7. 53. S ee id . 54. The Chr istia n Associat ion of Nigeria i s a n ecu me ni cal org an iza ti on w hi ch began in t he N orth of the coun tr y in 1964 t o defend t he r ights of Christians against g rowing Muslim hegemony a nd th en sprea d nat ionally. However, a mi li t an t st ance is more char acter istic of its nor th ern wing. 55. Minchakpu , supra note 51, at 8. 56. F o r a litany of complaints in this regard by Muslims, see, for examp le, Omar Bello, T he D irg e, 3 AF R . E VENTS , Aug. 8, 1987, at 48. 57. However , Ibrah im Gamba ri, former Min ist er of Foreign Affa ir s , and Niger ian 1998, in Ni ger ia ’s n or thea st Bor n o Sta te wh en t hr ee chur ches were a t t acked by Musl ims in th e capit al city of Maid ugu ri. 52 Musl ims were protes t ing the decision by the state in November to begin t each ing Ch ris tia n Religious Kn owledge (CRK) in pu blic schools. Th is de cis ion wa s t o comply wi th the N at ion a l Policy on Educa t ion which requ i res tha t CRK be t aught i n a l l p r imary schools alongside Islamic Religious Knowle dge (IRK). IRK wa s a compu lsory subject in Borno Sta te schools, but a nu mber of Muslims were prepared to fight to exclude any Chr ist ian t each ing. Following th e destr uction of th ree chu rches by severa l hun dred Muslims and protests by Islamic leaders, toget he r w ith th e fear of fur th er violence, t he s t a t e govern men t with dr ew t he or der to t each CRK in th e schools.53 Some effor t s a t recon cilia t ion were m ade . Th e Gover nor delivered an add res s in wh ich he condem ned a nt igovernm ent elements; soon a fter , a Mus lim lea de r sp oke out on b eh a lf of the cons t it u t iona l r igh t of Ch r is t ia ns t o have t heir own reli giou s edu cat ion in t he s chools. However , th e Chr ist ian Ass ocia t ion of Niger ia 54 i n Borno S ta te cla imed tha t , despi te advance warn ing of the at tacks, government security forces had fa ile d t o act . They de cla red tha t “[t]h er e is no amount of in t im ida t ion , th rea t or wha ts oever t ha t will s top th e Chr is t ians in the st a t e from request ing th eir cons tit ut ional a nd legitim at e righ t of tea chin g CRK. We a re a ll p rep ared to di e for a bet t er and t ru ly p ea cefu l tomorrow.”55 As em ph as ized ea rlie r, a ll th ese ch ar ges and actua l incidents of reli giou s d iscr imina tion in t he s chools of colonia l a n d pos t -colon ia l N ige r ia need t o be se en aga in st a ba ckgr ound of genera l fears of dom in a t ion and exploi t a t ion .56 Such inciden t s a re forever r ife in a coun tr y like Nigeria, with its fairly even ly balan ced Muslim and Christian constituencies.57 These D :\ 1 9 9 9- 2\ F I N A L \ H A C -F I N 2 .W P D Ja n . 8 , 2001 537] CONFLICT IN TH E CLASSROOM 549 Permanen t Repr ese nt at ive t o th e U nit ed N at ions , ar gu es t ha t t he re ligiou s di vide of Niger ia is un bala nced r egionally wit h st rong Ch rist ian minorities i n t he Nor th and a t leas t fifty pe r cen t of th e Yorub a in th e sout hwe st cla imin g Mus lim a ffiliation. H e believes this has reinforced ethnic antagonisms in a p olitical system d riven by e t hnicity. S ee Ibr ah im Ga mba ri, Th e Rol e of R eligi on i n N ati ona l L ife: R eflecti ons on R ecent Experiences in Nigeria, in RELIGION AND NATIONAL IN T E G R AT I O N IN AFRICA: ISLAM , CHRISTIANITY , AND P O L IT I CS I N TH E SUDAN AND N IGERIA 85 (J ohn O. H un wick ed., 199 2). 58. S ee gen erally RELIGION AND NATIONAL IN T E G R AT I O N IN AFRICA: ISLAM CHRISTIANITY AND P O L IT I CS I N TH E SUDAN AND N IGERIA , supra n ote 57; YU S U F U BALA USMAN , TH E MA N IP U L AT I ON O F RE L I G IO N I N N IGERIA : 1977-1987 (1987 ); WI L L I AM S & F ALOLA, supra not e 16; Olu sola Akin rin ade & M.A. Ojo, R eligi on a nd Politics in Contemporary Nigeria: Stud y of 1986 OIC Crisis, J . AS I AN & AF R . AF F ., Fa l l 1992 , a t 44; J ibrin Ibr ah im, Religion and Political Turbu lence in Nigeria , 29 J . MOD . AF R . ST U D. 115 (1991); J ibrin Ibr ah im, T he P olit ics of R eligi on i n N iger ia: T he P ara m eters of the 1987 Crisis in Kaduna Sta te, 45 RE V. AF R . P OL ., E CON . 65 (1989) [hereina fter Poli tics of R eligi on ]. This ten dency t o the orize political m an ipula tion exp lains why policy which would ha ve had educational benefits for all concerned was questione d on religious grounds. F o r exam ple, William s an d Fa lola note th e int eres tin g case of tea ching Arabic in seconda ry schools. Whil e i t could be ju stified a s an int ern at ional la ngu age in th e s a m e way a s Engl ish or F r e n ch, Christ ians viewed the t eaching of Arabic as a m eans of Is la miz a t ion and t he i ssue e n ter ed the r ea lm of “v ola t il e r el ig ious po li t ics.” S ee WI L L I AM S & F ALOLA, supra note 16, at 56. 59. S ee Amadu Ali, E d uca tion for N at ion al D evelop m ent , in N IGERIA : TH E STATE OF T H E NA TI O N AN D T H E WAY F ORWARD 423 (Abdu lla hi Ma ha di e t a l. e ds ., 1 994 ). 60. See, for exa mple, th e call by then-Vice Chancellor of Obafemi Awolowo Un iversit y, Ile -Ife , P ro fes sor Wa nd e Abi mb ola , for th e fou nd ing of a Ce nt re for t he Study of Religion, Ethics and Soci et y. P rofe ssor Abim bola ar gu ed for re sea rch on re ligion an d et hics in Niger ia t o form a bas is for pea ce in t he cou nt ry. T h e ca ll was made at a conference on “Religion and P ea c e i n Multi-Fait h Nigeria ,” organized by Dr . J acob K. Olupona in con junct ion with t h e Co u n cil of the World’s Religions in December 1989. S ee Olus ak in Ola deji, Centre for R eligi on a nd Et hi cs A dv ocat ed , DAILY SKETCH , Dec. 5, 1989. Anothe r example can be fo un d in th e ca se of P ro fes sor Is ma il B al ogu n o f th e Unive r s ity of Ilorin, ren owned for h avin g design ed m an y progr am s th at brough t M u sl im s an d Chr istia ns t ogethe r for dia logue an d for his p ublicat ion s. Opeloye mak es a sim ila r p lea , from a M us lim van ta ge p oint , for r eligi ous plu ra lism to be seen a s t he basis of nation al developm ent . He en dorses th e govern men t’s financial s u p po r t of acade mic as socia tion s su ch a s t he Nig er ian Associa tion for t he St ud y of Reli gion s incidents tr an sla te in to popu lar th eories of the m an ipu lat ion of reli gion for political ends, on which t her e is a vas t b ody of academ ic and popula r liter at ur e.58 As m ight be expect ed, t her e ar e ma ny calls for edu cat ion to form the ba ckbon e of a hea lt hy n a t ion and m any la men ts a bou t falling edu cat iona l st an da rd s in Niger ia. 59 Bu t despite the best effor t s of some sch olar s, r eligious leaders and government officials t o t r ans form the pub li c educa t ion sector in to a s it e cha ract e r ized by a discour se of toleran ce,60 i t is notewor thy tha t D :\ 1 9 9 9- 2\ F I N A L \ H A C -F I N 2 .W P D Ja n . 8 , 2001 550 BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY LAW REVIEW [1999 (NASR) an d th e Na tion al Associa tion for Religious Tolera nce (NARE TO). S ee Muh ib O. Opeloye, Religious Pluralism as a Means of Development in N igeria: A Mu slim Vi ew , in ST U D IE S I N RE L I G I O U S UN D E R S TA N D IN G I N N IGERIA 51 (R.D. Abubak re et al. eds., 199 3). At th e na tiona l level, Muslim s crea ted t he Is lam ic Stud y Group of Nigeria (IS GON ). They or gan ized na tiona l semin ar s to wh ich Chr istia ns we re in vited on issues of comm on concer n. S ee M.A. BI D M OS , IN T E R-RE L I G I O U S DI A LO G U E: TH E N IGE RIAN E XPERIENCE 71-72 (1993). There ar e also m ore sm all-scale , re gion al a s soc ia t ions such as t he Inst itute o f Ecum enical E duca tion, Th inke rs Cor ner , En ugu , eas t ern Niger ia, foun ded by Rev. F r. Dr . Sta n Ch iedu An ih in 1981. In th e foundin g lega l docume nt , th e Ins tit ut e is descr ibed as “an ins tit ut ion of higher lear nin g an d for the t rainin g of teacher s of morality or religion as well a s f or r e sea rch in , and study of, religious or moral educa t i on ” and to “p romote th rough r esea rch , advancemen t of re ligio n or mor al it y a nd it s p ra cti cal ap plica ti o n t o the religious needs of th e St at e.” RE V. F R . DR . STAN . CH I E D U ANIH , RE L I G I O U S E C U M E N I S M A N D E DUCATION F O R TO L E RANCE 137-38 (1992) (quot ing In stit ut e of Ecum enica l Edu cation Law, N o. 6, at ¶ ¶ 3(2), 5 (19 83) (An am br a, Ni g.)). 61. F o r example, in the secondary schools, other religious trad i t ions a re sometimes ta u g h t unde r t he gu ise of social st udie s (or in th e un ivers ities , as sociolog y). Bu t t he pr oblem wit h t his ap pr oach is t ha t it “rele gat es” livi ng re ligiou s t r ad it i ons to historical and social phenomena . 62. S ee CH I D E S TE R ET AL ., supra note 13, at 73-74. Although, as Dr . Matth ews A. Ojo n ote s, t he re ma y be pr act ica l—ra ther than pol icy—reasons why s tudents may no t ta ke bot h su bjects t ogeth er. D r. Ojo h ims elf, as a s t udent , took both Chr i st i an and Isla mic st udie s in s chool. S ee P e r so na l Co m mun icat ion from Dr. M at th ews A. Ojo (Mar. 4, 1 999 ) (on fi le w it h a ut ho r). 63. The Nig er ian Un ion of T ea che rs (NU T) r em ain s opp osed to t he r etu rn of schools to the chur ches, as voiced by NUT Secretar y Genera l Chie f Gabriel Salade. In a n ews pa per int er view , Ch ief Sa lad e cla im ed t ha t d iscr im ina tion in a dm iss ion policies and cha rging of fees would result if the schools were ret u rned to church contr ol. S ee Why We’re Against Re tu r n of Mission S chools, NATION AL CONCORD , Feb ruary 17, 1998, at 20. confes siona l pressu res h ave held swa y in Nigeria owin g t o the fears descr ibed a bove. In oth er w ords , th e open, p lur a l ist discourse of the m odern , acad emic st ud y of relig ion a t the t e r t ia ry level h as n ot filt er ed dow n in to the s t a te school sys t em.61 Desp ite e du cat iona l reform s, t wo single -t r adi t ion programs for r eligious education rem ain, with pa ra l le l exam programs in Chr i st i an Stud ies a nd Islamic Studies. These divis ion s ar e also reflected in th e ma nn er in wh ich reli giou s edu cat ion is t augh t as a st anda rd s ubject (usu ally wit h mora l and religious a ims) at th e pr i m ar y and secondar y levels.62 The sit ua tion is bein g fu r the r complica ted in some s tates by the gr ow t h of privat ized (i.e. both ent repr e n eu r i a l a nd denominational) educational institutions.63 D :\ 1 9 9 9- 2\ F I N A L \ H A C -F I N 2 .W P D Ja n . 8 , 2001 537] CONFLICT IN TH E CLASSROOM 551 64. S ee WI L L I AM S & F ALOLA, supra note 16, at 163-64. 65. S ee Oha dike , supra note 6, at 110-11. 66. S ee WI L L I AM S & F ALOLA, supra note 16, at 177. III. ST U D E N T AS S O C I AT I O N S A N D TH E I R E F F E C T ON RE L I GI O N S A N D E D U C A T I O N To p rov ide a t r ans it ion for our d iscuss ion from the school t o the un iver sit y conte xt, w e ne xt t ur n to some of the k ey r eli giou s associa t ions tha t opera te on bot h school an d u nive rs ity/college campuses. Ni ger ia ’s s chools ha ve long been t ar geted by nondenomina t iona l evan gelical movem ent s, wit h t heir soul- winn ing pr opaga nd a. These in clu de the S cr ip ture U nion and the Student Christ ia n Moveme nt , which flooded t he s chools in the 1940s w ith th eir t ra cts a nd books from B rit ain .64 With the ir emp ha sis on pe rs ona l sa lvat ion, a st rict Bible-cent ered mora li t y, and evangelism, thes e movements l a id the founda t ions for th e lat er ch ar ism at ic movemen ts . Boar din g school pu pils in pa rt icular common ly solicit ins pir at iona l l it e r a ture from na t ion a l a nd over se as r eli giou s or ga n iza t ion s. Many people a tt est to ha ving become “born -aga in” Chr ist ian s in th e sch ool sett ing. Of part icular note is the Fellowship of Chr i st i an S tuden t s (F CS )—a fa irly r ad ical, int erd enom ina tion al Ch ris tia n movement which developed in 195 7 a m ong the minor i ty e thn ic groups of Nigeria ’s Midd le Bel t and then spread th roughout the nor the rn region, defending th e religious r ight s of Chr ist ian s tuden t s in a Mus lim en viron m e nt . Whi le on ly a s tuden t g roup (a t the seconda r y a n d t e r t ia ry l evel s) w ith the suppor t of sym pa th etic te ach ing s ta ff, it becam e a van gua rd of pol it i ca l nat ionalism in the contested Middle Belt region .65 Ut ilizing t he pr in t media a s a form of self-expres sion a nd pr oselyt izat ion, t he gr oup has p rodu ced se ver a l m aga zin es , such as Focu s, which was la un ched in 1996. Another gr oup, th e Muslim St uden ts’ Society (MSS), was founded in 195 4 to coun ter th e per ceived ind oct r ina t ion of Mus lim childr en in to Ch ris tia nit y in t he s chools.66 The g roup init ia lly flou r ished in the S outh because it made up for the discrim ina tion Mu sl im s fa ced in Ch r is t ia n-dom in a ted sch ools. In itia lly, i t s ma in a im was to p romote and s t rengthen Is lam among st ude nt s. It orga n ized con fer en ces , r eli giou s inst ruct ion , D :\ 1 9 9 9- 2\ F I N A L \ H A C -F I N 2 .W P D Ja n . 8 , 2001 552 BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY LAW REVIEW [1999 67. S ee id . at 177-80. 68. F o r a discussion of this and a nother incident involving MSS stu dents, see infra note s 80-94 an d accompa nyin g text . and produced tracts, newsletters, and m agazines—sometimes with funding from other pa rts of the Muslim w or ld. By 1987 it had a m em ber sh ip of over five million an d h ad gar n e r ed the support of major Muslim leaders.67 In the 1970s , h owever , a more extrem ist elem en t b ega n t o cha ract e r ize th e MSS leader ship in some of t he nor the rn universities. The new leader s t u rned the ir a t t ent ion to pr oselytizin g and p rotes t ing th e sa le and consumpt ion of a lcoh ol on campuses . The radica l ism tu rned violen t a t Ahmadu Bello Univers ity dur ing the late 1970s and into the 1980s. Socia l clubs were atta cked and t he s tuden t un ion bar was burned down. The MSS was im pl ica ted in a t t acks on th e tariqa or Mus lim br oth erh oods an d on Ch ris tia n ch u r ch es in the Nor th . It als o became an ad vocate for t he p lace of Sha ri’a (formal Islam ic law) in th e new const itu tion , before re jecting the la t t er , a s w ell as t he exis t en ce of t he secular feder al govern men t, in 1980. The extens ion of its a ctivities beyon d th e campu ses r eflected the influe nce of th e Isla mic r evolut ion in I r an on many of the MSS lea de rs. In fact, widespread allegations exist that t he I ran ians tr ain ed som e of the M SS lead ers in Ira n a nd su pplied propaganda litera tu re t o cha llenge Nigeria’s secular sta te. The radicalism of t he nor the rn zone even tua lly sp rea d in to the South , and MSS studen ts be ca m e voca l in their ca ll for the es tabl ishment of Shari’a court s in south western Yorubaland. MSS Student s were also inst ru men ta l in th e crisis over t he cross at th e Un ivers ity of Ibad an in 198 6. This inciden t is described below.68 In shor t , the format ion and growth of s tuden t as sociat ion s in Nigerian schools and un iversities has con t r ibu ted to th e Muslim-Chr istian ten sion an d th e problems ass ocia ted wit h in tegr a t in g r eligion s a nd e du ca t ion . IV. UN I VE R S IT IE S Univer sities represent ext remely impor tan t and int ere st ing sites with rega rd to our an alys is of the rela tion sh ip between reli giou s tolerance (or in tolerance) and educa t iona l inst i tu t ions . Niger ia’s un iversity camp uses ha ve lon g he ld a repu ta t ion for D :\ 1 9 9 9- 2\ F I N A L \ H A C -F I N 2 .W P D Ja n . 8 , 2001 537] CONFLICT IN TH E CLASSROOM 553 69. I br a h im , Polit ics of R eligi on , supra note 58, at 73. 70. S ee id . 71. S ee Rosalin d I.J . Ha cket t, Th e Academic St udy of R eligion in N igeria, 18 RELIGION 37 (1 988 ). 72. S ee J acob K. Ol up ona , Th e Dynam ics of Religion and In terfaith Dialogue in Nigeria , in RELIGION AND P EACE IN A MUTLI -F A IT H N IGERIA 1, 7 (J. Olupon a ed ., 199 2); J acob Olu pona , Th e Stu dy of Religions in N igeria: Past, Present, and Future , in TH E ST U D Y O F RE L I G IO N S I N AFRICA: P A S T, P RESENT AND P RO SPECTS 185 (J. Platvoet et al . ed s., 199 6). 73. S ee S IMEON O. IL E S A N M I, RE L I G IO U S P L U R AL I SM A N D T H E N I G E R IA N STATE 61- 63, 241 -42 (1 997 ). pol it ica l act ivity—frequ ent ly in the for m of critical challenges to govern men t policy and milit ar y ru le. St rik es, clas hes with ar med pol ice , a nd close d ca mpu se s a re n ot uncommon. As J ibrin Ibrah im noted, “[t]he import an t r ole played by un iversities in fomen tin g religious fan at icism [am ong Mu slim s and Chr istian s] is not un ique t o Niger ia.”69 Such rad ica l reli giou s eleme n ts can a lso be found in other African count ries such as Sudan and Tunisia .70 But before cons ider ing t he nega tive inciden ts , we could begin by discu ssin g th e wa ys in wh ich t he un iver sit ies h ave promoted reli giou s t olera nce. T he a cade mic s tudy of reli gion a t the t e rt i a ry level has a relatively long history in Nigeria. In 1948-49, wh en Ni ger ia ’s p rem ier un ive rsi ty, t he U nive rsi ty of Ibadan , was s t il l a b ranch of Un ive rsi ty Col lege, L ondon , it was decided to crea te a mor e plu r a lis t ica lly or ien ted Depa r tmen t of Religiou s St ud ies t ha t wou ld be more in keep ing wi th the Niger ian religious la nds cape.71 So it i s not su rpr i sing tha t some of Ni ger ia ’s lea ding a cade mics h a ve long ad vocated tea chin g about re ligion as an impor tan t means of achie ving na t iona l un ity . For exam ple, J acob K. Olup ona , an int ern at iona lly re cognized Ni ger ia n sch ola r of religion, ma kes a s tr ong claim for the com pa ra t ive h is tory of r eli gion s t o be taugh t from t he second a r y level to the un iversity level in Nigeria. H e ar gues tha t Mu slim an d Ch ris tia n ch ildr en sh ould b e vers ed in each othe r ’s tr ad itions as well as th e et hica l her ita ge st emm ing from trad it iona l religious cult ur e.72 Sim eon Iles an mi cogent ly ar ticulat es a p lea for r eligio-political in ter act ion in N igeria in the form of “dia logic polit ics,” and, consequently, perceives a g rea t e r role for r eligion in s ha pin g a cu r r icu lum for na t iona l un ity .73 He sees th e pr ima ry goal of edu cat ion not as cult ivat ing D :\ 1 9 9 9- 2\ F I N A L \ H A C -F I N 2 .W P D Ja n . 8 , 2001 554 BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY LAW REVIEW [1999 74. Id . at 242 (quot ing Willia m F . May, Public H appin ess and High er Ed uca tion , in CA R I N G F O R TH E COMM ONW EAL : E D U C AT I O N F OR RELIGIOUS AND P UBLIC LI F E 244 (Parker J . P al me r e t a l. e ds ., 1 990 )). 75. S ee Ha cket t, supra note 1. 76. S ee generally I.A.B. BA L OG U N , UTILIZING RELIGIONS FOR P EACEFU L UN I T Y A N D P R O G R E S S I N N IGERIA (1981). However, P rofessor H .O. Dan mole, a colleagu e in t he Histo ry Depart ment at t he Un iversity of Ilorin, reports th at a strong ter r i t or ia l and competit ive se ns e d ivid es th e d ep ar tm en t of R eligion. In ter view wit h P rofessor H.O Dan mole (Se pt . 12 , 19 98). 77. S ee BIDMOS , supra note 60. 78. However , most of the applicants a t tha t time ha d a nar row focus , so n one was employed. In December 1997, a Muslim lectu rer, Mr . A. Adeniyi, was appointed. Courses on Islam had be e n t a u gh t since 1977 by Rev. E.O. Oyelade, after th e depa r tu re of the Mu slim scholar Prof. A.R. Doi in 1975. The De p ar t m ent n ow teaches up to eigh t courses in I s lam. 79. Persona l Com mu nica tion from a s en ior m em ber of th e De pa rt me nt of Religiou s S t u dies at OAU , Il e-I fe, i n I le-I fe, N ige ri a (Ap r. 199 1) (on file wit h a ut ho r). good Chr istians , Muslims, or scient ists, bu t r at her as cult ivat ing th e “civic self” as a means of l iv ing together har moniously.74 As is often th e case, ther e is ign ora nce bet ween Mus lims and Chr is t ians conce rn ing one anothe r ’s t r adi t ions. Afr ica n t rad it iona l religions far e even worse for a va riet y of politica l, cu ltu ra l , and religious reasons.75 Th e Dep ar tmen ts of Reli gion a t the Universities of Jos a nd I lor in (which p roduce many grad ua tes who will go int o teach ing) p rov ide an impor tan t model for comba tin g th is ignor an ce by requ irin g courses in bot h the Islamic and Christian tra ditions.76 Unfor tuna te ly , though , with t h e res ur gence in reviva list act ivities by both Chr ist ian and Muslim groups on univer sity camp uses in Nigeria (over the last decade in pa rt icular), ther e ha s been a det erior at ion in Chr ist ian -Muslim relat ions and s ch ola r ly coop er a t ion . Fu rt her more, Mu sl im s a re r elu ctant to a llow I s lam to be t augh t by non-Musl ims (u n less th e sch olar is a re cognized a ut hor ity, as in the case of Rev. Professor J oseph Kenny a t t he Un ive r si ty of Ibadan).77 For exam ple, from the m id-1980s unt il 1997, th e campus Musl im community a t Ob a femi Awolowo Univer sit y in Ile -Ife exerted pressur e on the Religious Stu dies Depar tm ent to emp loy a Mu slim lectu rer to t each Isla m. 78 Musl ims a lso resen t some Chr is t ian lectu re r s usin g t he cla ss room as a si t e for pr ose lyt iza t ion . The res pons e of one Ch ris tia n professor t o me on the ma t t e r was, “I f we do not cap tu re these young minds , the opposit ion will.”79 D :\ 1 9 9 9- 2\ F I N A L \ H A C -F I N 2 .W P D Ja n . 8 , 2001 537] CONFLICT IN TH E CLASSROOM 555 80. S ee AYO BA N J O, IN T H E SADDLE : A VICE -CHANCELLOR ’S STORY 69-7 8 (1997). The int en sit y of religious act ivity on un iver sit y an d college campuses in Nigeria, with its at tendan t factionalism an d te r r it or i al it y , h a s a t times genera ted u nr est wh ich rad iates beyon d the boundar ies of the edu ca t ion a l in st it u t ion s themselves. F requen t ly the clashes a re over space an d symbols. Born -aga in Christians, as th ey ar e popu lar ly kn own, h ave become adep t , in sou thern universit ies in pa rt icula r, a t t r ans forming dorm itor ies in to m ission ter ra in, sp ort s st ad ia in to crusade headqua r t e rs , and the r e fector i es in t o cha r isma t ic discotheques, a nger ing non-Chris t ians an d g en e r a t ing admin ist ra t ive concern . Two in ciden t s of t h is type of r eli giou s in tolerance and violen ce ma y ser ve as exam ples. Th e first could be la beled the “Cr isis over t he Cros s.” This in ciden t e nd ed u p becomin g a na t iona l new s it em. F or t hir t y -tw o year s, a st one cross st ood in front of the Chapel of the Resur r ect ion at th e Un iver sit y of Ibadan . In 1985, a new m osque was built on adjoining ground. Vis it ors to the launch ing of the mosque in l at e 1985 compla ined tha t they cou ld see t he cr oss wh ile wor sh ip in g. Th en follow ed severa l mon t hs of w rangling over th is cross . Th e Vice Ch ancell or , Profes sor Ayo Ba njo, ca lled a pe ace m eet in g wh ich resu lted in deadlock.80 I t was resolved to ere ct a scree n, bu t t his p lan did n ot pla cat e th e an gry Mu slim s who claimed t hey were being distracted by the cross during prayers. By May 1986, a wooden sculptur e of the Risen Christ a t the en t rance to th e Pr otest a n t chapel had been set alight, perhaps over th e delay at erecting t he screen. Some Muslims were also an noyed th at th e scre en w as nea rer to t he m osque th an it was to the cros s . A t empora ry screen ing for t he Id -u l -F i tr festiva l in June wa s r efus ed by t he cha pel lea der s. By the t ime t he Vice Cha ncell or was su mm oned to Lagos to meet wit h t he Min i st er of Educa t ion in J u ly 1986, t he s it ua t ion was ext rem ely volatile. The Mos qu e Managem en t Com mittee had already submitt ed a di rect compla in t to the Minister , who then pur portedly called for th e cross to be tak en down. With in a week , m any Musl ims took to th e str eets wit h pla cards ask ing for t he r em ova l of t he cross. The y wer e joined by Mu slim s from ou ts ide the un iver sit y. D :\ 1 9 9 9- 2\ F I N A L \ H A C -F I N 2 .W P D Ja n . 8 , 2001 556 BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY LAW REVIEW [1999 81. S ee Kolawole I lori, To Be or Not to Be, NEWSWATCH , Aug. 4, 1986, at S. 31 ; Dawud Noibi & Sa yed H .A. Malik, The Cross Controversy, DAILY SKETCH , Ju ly 28, 1986, at S. 7; Godwin Sogolo, Religion and Religiosity: The Cross Case, TH E GUARD IAN , J uly 28, 1 986, a t S. 9 . 82. KUKAH & F ALOLA, supra note 17, at 145. 83. S ee id . at 144-46. 84. S ee id . at 146. 85. S ee id . 86. S ee id . Follow in g int er ven tion by th e st at e police comm ission er , th e Muslims finally resolved to accept t he bu ilding of th e screen. 81 A fa r m ore se riou s in cident occur red th e following yea r, in March 1987. It took p la ce on a fa r les s p res t igious ca mpus , the College of Educa t ion in Kafanchan , dur ing a Chr is t ian reviva l week ent itle d “Mission 87.” P r ior t o the mos t ser ious inciden t , the MS S h ad a lr ea dy been anger ed by t he P rote st a n t student s’ er ect ion of a banner which said “WELCOME TO JE SUS’ CAMPU S.”82 The college aut hor itie s a sk ed for t he pr ovocat ive ban ner to be removed . There was a lso anxie ty over the fa ct tha t the key speake r a t th e revival was a Muslim convert , Rev. Abu Bako. The r ea l t rouble began wh en Mu slim st uden ts in vaded the meet ing and a t t acked the speaker and some of t he Chr ist ian leaders. The offending s tuden ts a rgued tha t the a t t ack was in de fense of their re ligion, since it had occurr ed after a female Muslim student overheard t he spea ker b la spheme again st t he Qu r’an by the use of wrong quota t ions and interpreta tions.83 Sh e h ad r ep or ted the in ciden t to fellow Mus lim stu dent s who th en pu rport edly went on t h e a t tack. A college official, him se lf a Mu slim , wa s a ssa ult ed for t ryin g to s top th e conflict. H e en d ed u p in t he h ospit al. 84 The next day the college was closed as a preem ptive st rike a gainst furt her violence. Some of th e Muslim s tu dent s th en began blocking roads around the Kafanchan campus and in t imida t ing loca l r e siden t s by forcing t he m t o r e cit e t he S hahada or Mu sl im ar t icle of belie f.85 Since th e town was pr edomin an tly Ch ris tia n, t his crea t ed pan ic among the townspeople. In the skirm ishes that followed, the m osq ue of t he College of E du ca t ion w a s burned. Follow in g inter ventions by local Muslim le ade rs, the s it ua t ion was aga in br ought un der contr ol; but th is was to be of shor t dura tion .8 6 Fres h viole nce erupt ed in the t own of Ka fanchan D :\ 1 9 9 9- 2\ F I N A L \ H A C -F I N 2 .W P D Ja n . 8 , 2001 537] CONFLICT IN TH E CLASSROOM 557 87. S ee id . at 146-47, 147 n.14. 88. S ee id . at 147 n .14. 89. S ee id . at 147. 90. I br a h im , Polit ics of R eligi on , supra note 58, at 67 (quotin g NE W N IGE RIAN , May 12, 198 7). 91. Id . at 81. 92. Id . some two miles from t he ca mp us . Chr ist ian s bega n d est roying mosques and Muslim property, motivated by rumors tha t Musl ims int ended to burn down Christian churches tha t Sunday.87 By then , the official dea th toll was twelve.88 Before long, despite the actions t a k e n by t he Gover nor of Kaduna St a te, t he r iot s b ega n to sp rea d t o other ci t ie s and towns—Kaduna , Zar ia , Fun tua , G u sau an d Ma lum fash i.89 The r iot s were ch aracter ized b y t he loot in g a nd d es t ruct ion of th e homes and property of Christians an d southerners. These rep ris als ins tille d a gene ra l ins ecur ity a mong Ch r i st i ans in the s t a t e and many retu rn ed to th e South . The Donli Comm ittee, which compiled th e later report on th e riots, listed “nineteen people and eight animals killed, 169 hotels and beer par lor s destroyed, 152 p r iva te bu ild in gs , 15 2 ch urches, five mosques, and nin et y-five vehicles d am age d,”9 0 all with in the cou rse of twenty-four hours. In the view of Nigerian political scien t is t J ibr in Ibrah im, “religiou s fundamenta l ism” on th e Kafanchan campus or other Niger ian campuses would have remained marg ina l had th i s not been incorporat ed i n to t he goa ls of those ben t on pol it ica l domina t ion , na mely th e powerful nort her n oligarchy domina ted by Hausa -Fulani peoples.91 This elite “ma fia” is freque nt ly credited wit h s elfish end s. H a v in g los t power a ft e r t he crea t ion of new s ta tes in the coun tr y (which devolved power to increas ed numbers of loca l s t a te offici a ls ), t h is fact ion h a s “incr eas ingly come to us e re ligion as a t ool to forge a new hegem onic coalit ion .”92 So, wh ile acknowle dgin g a s a cont r ibu t in g fa ctor the growth of influentia l refor m ist a nd r evivalist elemen ts among student religious groups and their outside influe nces in the U.S. a nd Middle Eas t , Ibrah im thus p refe r s to a t t r ibu te the disr up tion caused by th ese j ihads an d cru sa des pr ima rily t o th i s nor the rn ol iga rchy’s a t t empts a t pol it i ca l m a n ipu la t ion . This was a l so the view take n by the then -head of s t a t e, Presiden t Baba ngida , in h is br oadcas t add res s on the riot s in D :\ 1 9 9 9- 2\ F I N A L \ H A C -F I N 2 .W P D Ja n . 8 , 2001 558 BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY LAW REVIEW [1999 93. S ee W. AF R ., Mar. 23, 1987. 94. S ee KUKAH & F ALOLA, supra note 17, at 158 -59. Fo r fu lle r a ccou nt s of t he whole series of events, see AF R . GUARD IAN , Mar. 26, 1987; NE W S W ATCH, Mar. 30, 1987; W. AF R ., Mar. 23, 1987. The economic explan at ion is favore d by Sa bo Bako (no r elat ion to the evangelist a t th e cent er of th e Kafa nch an riot s). S ee Sab o Bak o, World Economic Recession and the Growth of Religious Intolerance in Nigeria , in RELIGION AND P E A CE I N MULTI - F AITH N IGERIA 147 (J aco b K. Olu pon a e d., 199 2). 95. S ee T E R H AAR , supra note 15, at 157-58. Kaduna Sta te. 93 The iner tia of the secu rit y forces du rin g th e r iot s is an oft-cited examp le of this, as well as the fa i lu re to apprehend the protagon i st of th e init ial conflict a t t he College of Educa t ion , Kafanchan: Rev. Abu Ba ko, who now resides elsewher e in West Africa. The Committ ee of Inqu iry also cited the deca des of depr ivat ion of th e ind igen ous C hr ist ian s by t he Hausa-Fu lan i e li t e as a root cause of the inciden t .94 V. CO N C L U S I O N I have ar gued in th i s paper tha t the Niger ian educa t iona l sector cons t it u t e s a micr ocosm of wid er reli gion -st a te r ela t ion s. I t s genera l sha pe an d direction, an d th e specific is su es of reli giou s freedom tha t have emer ged from it, ha ve clear ly been influenced by pers i st e n t fea r s of d omin a t ion and m anipula t ion , as well a s a ctua l ca se s of relig ious d iscrim ina tion , by th e r e spect ive reli giou s a nd e thn ic gr oups . As has b een noted fr om the examp les adu mbr at ed above, e a ch of the m ajor reli giou s t rad it ions of Nigeria, namely, Christianity and Islam, exist as bot h major ity a nd m in or it y r eli gion s, de pe nding on the h i stor ica l or geogra ph ical cont ext in w hich th ey a re considered. Each religion has ha d its share of man ipulating resources and polit ica l power to its own a dvan ta ge. These local experien ces p lay into, an d also ar e negotiat ed in t e rms of, the h i stor ica l memory and ongoing nationalist discourses on r eligion and t he sta te. When violent conflict h as res ult ed, t hes e issues r eceive med ia coverage a nd get ca t apu lt ed onto the n a t ion a l polit ica l sta ge. While th ere ar e clear cases of failu r e to r ecognize the r igh t s of m i nor ity gr oups in t er ms of educa tion an d r eligion, m an y t imes th e inability t o demonstr at e eq u it y in the edu ca t ion system is due t o lack of resources, unt rained staff, and poor governa nce.95 Some of the problems could also be ascribed to D :\ 1 9 9 9- 2\ F I N A L \ H A C -F I N 2 .W P D Ja n . 8 , 2001 537] CONFLICT IN TH E CLASSROOM 559 96. F R E E DO M O F RE L I GION AND BE L I E F: A WORLD REPORT 55 (Kevin Boyle & Ju liet Sheen eds., 1997) [hereina fter F REEDOM O F RELIGION AND BE L I E F]. 97. S ee WI L L I AM S & F ALOLA, supra note 16. 98. S ee IL E S A N M I, supra not e 73; M.I. Mozia , Religion and M orality in Nigeria: An Ov erv iew , i n 9 N IG ERI A S I N C E INDEPE NDENCE : TH E F IRST 25 YEARS (J.A. Atanda et al. eds ., 1989). For a specific exampl e , see the t ex t of the Niger ian Nat iona l An them wh ich re ad s, “O G od of cr ea ti on, dir ect o u r h u mble course, Guide our leaders righ t.” 99. S ee CH I D E S TE R ET AL ., supra note 13, a t 74. As ter Ha ar n otes, West Africa n students, for t he mos t pa r t th rough the agency of th e We st Africa Exa mi na tion s Council (“WAEC”), were constr ained to ta ke eith er Chr istia n Religious Stu dies, Isla mic Reli giou s Stu dies, or African Tr aditiona l Religion, bu t cert ain ly n o comb ina tion of t h e m . S ee T E R H AAR , supra note 15, at 159. 100. S ee Rosalind I .J . Ha cket t, Radical Christian Revivalism in Nigeria and G h a n a: R ecent Pat ten s of C onf lict an d I nt olera nce , in P ROSELYTIZATION AND SE L F - DETERMINATION I N AFRICA (A.A. An -Na ’im ed ., 1 999 ). the be lie f of the va r iou s a ctors—p ar e n ts, govern men t officials , educators, etc.—th at th e pu blic school s h ou ld p rov ide the r e s ou rces for t he r eligious (me an ing confession al or den omin at iona l) educa t ion of the child. Th is t ype of emph as is is also seen in t he recent publication edit ed by Kevin Boyle and J uliet Sheen , Freedom of R eligion an d Belief: A W orld R epor t, where “re ligious educa t ion” i n t he re spect ive count ry r eport s is under s tood as t r adi t ion -sp ecifi c “re lig iou s inst ruct ion .”96 As William s and Fa lola cor rect ly su rm ise, a t t em pt s t o refor m the teach ing of reli gion in Ni ger ia n sch ools in a more a cade mic, mult i t rad it i on direction or exclude it ha ve failed for t wo reasons.97 F irst, the provision of education was closely tied to the missions from t he beginn ing of th e modern Nigerian sta te. Second, th er e exist s a st ron g belief in Niger i a n society t ha t reli giou s educat ion is closely conn ected to mora l edu cat ion. This idea can be t r aced eve n more broadly t o the widely held belief of Niger ian s that the foundat ions of a jus t and peacefu l na t ion a re predicated on its belief in God and religious values.98 As David Chidester and his a ssocia tes righ tly obser ve in th eir book on reli giou s educa t ion in Sou th Afr ica , separa te religious pr ogra ms in s ta te s chools ar e mor e likely, in a religiou sly divided societ y su ch a s Nigeria , to contr ibute t o fur the r pola r iza t ion a long r eligious lines.99 Th is type of segregat ed system is also more conducive to man ipulat ion by the reviva list or funda men ta lis t ele men ts in the s ociet y, which ar e a s ignifican t fa ctor in pr esen t-da y Niger ia. 100 Ch ides te r and h is colleagu es st rongly advocate, for plura lis t ic societ ies su ch as D :\ 1 9 9 9- 2\ F I N A L \ H A C -F I N 2 .W P D Ja n . 8 , 2001 560 BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY LAW REVIEW [1999 101. U.N. GAOR , 36 th Se ss ., p t. 1, a t 3 34, U. N. Doc. G A/654 6 (19 81). 102. General Com m ent N o. 22 on Ar ticl e 18 of the International Covenant on Civil a n d Polit ical Rights, Hum an Right s Committ ee, 48th Ses s., U.N. Doc. CCPR /C/21/Rev.1/Add.4 (1993), re pr in ted in F REEDOM O F RELIGION AND BE L I E F, supra no te 96, at xx, xxi. In e ar ly 1998, a n O y o s t a te cou rt gr an te d 1 2 p up ils of th e Ame ri can Christian Academy th e right t o refu s e t h e Bible st ud y cour se r equ ir ed of all s tuden t s . The cour t decreed tha t t he students be grant ed leave to enforce and ser ve th eir fun dam ent al h um an righ ts of th ought , cons cience, a nd r eligion. Court Grants Pupils Rejection of Bible Study , N IGE RIAN TRIBU N E , Febru ary 28, 1998, at 19. 103. General Comm ent No. 22 on Articl e 18 of the International Covenan t on Civil an d Polit ical Rights, Hum an Right s Committ ee, 48 t h Sess. , U.N. Doc. CCPR /C/21/Rev.1/Add.4 (1993), reprinted in F REEDOM O F RELIGION AND BE L I E F, supra no te 96, at xx. Sou th Afr ica , t he m er it s of a mult it r adi t ion , n onconfess iona l approach to teaching about r eligion in schools. In a pa pe r pr es en ted a t the Oslo Con feren ce on F reedom of Religion and Beli ef in Augu st 1998, I l ik ewise bu ilt a case for teach ing about religion in an aca dem ic, non-n orm at ive way as a means of genera t ing cu l tu ra l consen sus for r eligious t olerance. I find en dors eme nt for th is in the U.N . Decla ra t ion on the E limina t ion of All Form s of Int olerance an d of Discrim ina tion Based on Religion or Belief, where Art icle 5(3) sta tes: T h e child sh al l be pr ote cte d fr om an y for m of dis crim in at ion on t h e groun d of re l igion or b elief. H e sh all b e br oug ht up in a s pir it o f un de r s t a nd ing , t o l e rance , fr i endsh ip among peop les , p e a ce an d u n iver sa l br oth er h ood, r es pe ct for f r e e dom of re ligion or b elief of oth er s, a nd in fu ll consciou sn ess th at his ene rgy and t a l en t s sh ou ld be de voted to t he ser vice of his f e llow men .101 Moreover , the U.N. Huma n Rights Commit tee “is of the view tha t ar ticle 18(4) per mit s pu blic school i n st r uct ion in su bject s such as t he gener al hist ory of religions a nd et hics if it is given in a ne u tra l an d objective w ay.”102 Fur the rmore , “[t ]he Commi t tee notes tha t publ ic educa t ion tha t in clu de s inst ruct ion in a p ar ticu lar religion or belief is incons ist ent wit h a r t icle 18(4) un les s p rovis ion is made for non-d iscr imina tory exe mpt ion s or a l t erna t ives tha t wou ld accommoda te th e wishes of parent s and guar dians.”103 Over all, eth nicit y has tended to generate more controversy in Niger ia than reli giou s ide n t it y. Yet it is in ter es t in g t o note tha t r e ligious di ffe rences seem to have domina ted in the educa t iona l context . This ma y be due in pa rt to th e great er D :\ 1 9 9 9- 2\ F I N A L \ H A C -F I N 2 .W P D Ja n . 8 , 2001 537] CONFLICT IN TH E CLASSROOM 561 pol it ica l effort s expen ded t o downpla y eth nic diver sit y with in sch ools an d un iversities in the in ter es t s of n a t ion a l in tegr a t ion . It may a lso refle ct a poli t ica l u nde res t im at ion of th e mobilizing capaci ty of reli giou s sen t iments and as sociat ions. Alt er na tive ly, the democra t ic political pa rt icipat ion denied to Nigeria ns by su ccessive milit ar y govern men ts m ay find its out let for some in educa t iona l politics. Th e sen sit ivity of th e edu cat iona l sector is also a factor , given it s symbol ic and actua l role as the nur tu r ing ground of th e next gen era t ion —notably it s l ea de rs. As t he Specia l Rappor teur of the UN Human Righ t s Commission on the E l imina tion of All F orms of I n toler ance a nd of Discr im in a t ion Base d on Religion or Belie f, P rofes sor Abd elfa t t ah Amor, noted in his address to the Oslo Conference on Fr eedom of Religion an d Belief in August 1998, th e ba tt le against r e ligious persecu t ion and discrim ina tion will n ot h ave las tin g su ccess if it is not groun ded in a n edu cational syst em (nota bly its “ha rd core,” the p r imary and seconda ry inst i tu t ions of learn ing), that is itself predicated on values of tolerance an d freedom . Access to resour ces and eq uita ble d is t r ibu t ion ther eof a re clearly paramount in Nigeria’s educat iona l syst em , for jus t ice nee ds t o be done a nd seen to be don e in t his a r e a of people’s lives in wh ich eve ryon e h as a st ake on e way or anothe r . Conflict in the Classroom: Educational Institutions as Sites of Religious TolerancelIntolerance in Nigeria Recommended Citation tmp.1373567779.pdf.iCO1p