To the Graduate Council:

I am submitting herewith a dissertation written by Ashwin J. Patel entitled “The Mental 
Demands and Coping Strategies of Professional Motocross Riders: A Qualitative 
Investigation.” I have examined the final electronic copy of this dissertation for form and 
content and recommend that it be accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for 
the degree of Doctor of Philosophy with a major in Education.

Leslee A. Fisher
Major Professor

We have read this dissertation
and recommend its acceptance:

Craig A. Wrisberg 

Glenn C. Graber

Jeffrey T. Fairbrother

Acceptance for the council:

Anne Mayhew

Vice Chancellor and Dean of
Graduate Studies

(Original signatures are on file with official student records.)



The Mental Demands and Coping Strategies of Professional Motocross Riders:

A Qualitative Investigation

A Dissertation

Presented for the 

Doctor of Philosophy

Degree

University of Tennessee, Knoxville

Ashwin J. Patel

May 2006



ii

Dedication

This is dedicated to my father. Much of who I am and who I have become is based on the 

lessons you provided throughout my life: (a) to follow your heart and find a path that best 

suits you;  (b) to persevere when obstacles are in your way; and (c) to cherish the individuals 

that help you along your journey. I can never thank you enough for encouraging me to follow 

my dream and supporting me when I needed you most. I am so fortunate to have you as my 

father. I love you. 



iii

Acknowledgements

I would be remiss not to thank the individuals who helped my throughout my 

academic stay here at the University of Tennessee. First, and foremost, I would like to 

thank my committee members – Dr. Fisher, Dr. Wrisberg, Dr. Graber, and Dr. 

Fairbrother – who were instrumental in aiding me throughout my dissertation process. Dr. 

Fisher, your constant encouragement and constructive feedback throughout the writing 

process was invaluable. Dr. Wrisberg, your guidance, and knowledge of sport psychology 

was instrumental in the completion of this process. Dr. Fairbrother, your unbridled 

enthusiasm in the sport of motocross helped inspire me to want to continue a line of 

research in this area. Dr. Graber, your mentoring and support over the last 3 years has 

been unbelievable and much appreciated. 

My time here at UT has been a life altering one. While the education that I 

received here was invaluable, it was the friendships developed and fostered that made this 

experience so rewarding: Noah, Mooch, Hick, Grimey, Taryn, Matt, Camille, Maus, 

Harrell, and Naje. I would especially like to thank Dr. Vanessa Shannon whose assistance 

during the writing and re-writing phases was so much appreciated.  

I would also like to thank Rally, Don, Morty, Fish, and Abe for all their support 

over the years. You guys have been unbelievable friends from early childhood. Your 

unquestioned support and loyalty over the years has been immeasurable. Whenever I 

needed anything you guys were there for me. For that I can never thank you enough. 

Last but not least I would like to thank my family. Anil, Alisha and Alexis, I 

know this process has not been the easiest one, but because of your support I have finally 

received my Ph.D. – my dorky goal since I was a kid. I know that leaving home to pursue 



iv

my post-graduate career under the circumstances that I did, was probably not done with 

the greatest tact. Regardless you demonstrated unquestioned love and support helped me 

work towards my goal of gaining my doctorate. I love you guys and look forward to 

having a celebratory pint in the near future. 



v

Abstract

Professional motocross is one of the most physically and mentally demanding of 

sports. Riders often have to simultaneously execute various motor and cognitive tasks 

while remaining in a calm and focused state. The only published study suggests that 

detailed pre-performance planning and mental rehearsal are essential when developing 

motocross athlete’s performance (Collins, Doherty, & Talbot, 1993). While there has 

been a good deal of information regarding how elite athletes in other sports like figure 

skating (Gould, Jackson, & Finch, 1993b), wrestling (Gould, Eklund, & Jackson, 1992), 

and the decathlon (Dale, 2000) deal with the mental demands of their sport, there has 

been no opportunity for motocross athletes to articulate the mental factors they 

experience both on and off the track. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to gain an 

in-depth, comprehensive understanding of professional motocross riders’ experience of 

the mental demands and coping strategies of their sport. More specifically, an attempt 

was made to gain a greater understanding of how professional motocross riders view the 

word “mental demands” as well as how this perspective influences their mindset during 

practice, competition, around teammates and friends and family. To achieve this purpose, 

the following questions guided the research: (a) what do they think are some of the 

mental demands related to being a professional motocross rider?; (b) at what times/when 

do they experience these mental demands?; and (c) how to they cope with the mental 

demands that they experience, both on and off the motocross track? Answers to these 

questions were obtained from seven professional motocross riders who participated in 

semi-structured interview sessions. Four themes were derived from the interpretive 

analysis dealing with the athletes’ mental demands. They included: (a) the racing 



vi

environment; (b) the nature of the sport; (c) expectations; and (d) relationship with others. 

Three themes representing coping strategies used by the professional motocross riders 

also emerged. They included: (a) thought control; (b) staying focused; and (c) emotional 

control. Discussion centered on the consistency of the results with the current sport 

literature. Finally, implications for sport psychology consultants, riders, and researchers 

are offered.



vii

Table of Contents

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION........................................................................................ 1

The Context: Motocross 101 ........................................................................................... 5
Motocross versus supercross....................................................................................... 5
Motocross and motocross lite class............................................................................. 7

Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................ 7

Significance..................................................................................................................... 8

Purpose of the Study ....................................................................................................... 8

Assumptions .................................................................................................................... 8

Limitations of the Study .................................................................................................. 9

Delimitations of the Study ............................................................................................. 10

Definition of Terms ....................................................................................................... 10

CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF LITERATURE ................................................................... 11

Psychological Factors Affecting Performance ............................................................. 11

Environmental Factors Affecting Performance ............................................................ 14

The Role of Mental Training in Motocross................................................................... 16

Coping Strategies in Sport ............................................................................................ 18

Summary ....................................................................................................................... 21

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY .................................................................................. 23

Paradigm....................................................................................................................... 23
Ontology ................................................................................................................... 23
Epistemology ............................................................................................................ 24

Bracketing Interview ..................................................................................................... 24

Pilot Interview............................................................................................................... 26

Procedure...................................................................................................................... 26

Co-Participants............................................................................................................. 28

Data Analysis ................................................................................................................ 29

CHAPTER IV: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................. 32

Mental Demands ........................................................................................................... 32

Racing Environment...................................................................................................... 32
Bike issues ................................................................................................................ 34



viii

Opponents ................................................................................................................. 35
Nerves ....................................................................................................................... 35

Nature of the Sport........................................................................................................ 37
Training concerns...................................................................................................... 37
Injuries ...................................................................................................................... 38

Expectations .................................................................................................................. 42
Expectations from self .............................................................................................. 42
Expectations from others .......................................................................................... 43

Relationships with Others ............................................................................................. 45
Teammates ................................................................................................................ 45
Sponsors.................................................................................................................... 46

Coping Strategies.......................................................................................................... 47
Dealing with distractions .......................................................................................... 48
Controllable factors................................................................................................... 50
Reframing. ................................................................................................................ 51

Staying Focused ............................................................................................................ 52
Focusing on the present ............................................................................................ 53
Pre-performance routines.......................................................................................... 53

Emotional Control ........................................................................................................ 54
Regulating arousal .................................................................................................... 54
Mental training techniques........................................................................................ 55

Summary ....................................................................................................................... 57

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND APPLICATIONS ... 58

New Finding #1: Mental Demands of Motocross ......................................................... 58

New Finding #2: The Effects of the Bike ...................................................................... 58

New Finding #3: The Youth Subculture........................................................................ 59

New Finding #4: “Cool Pose” in Motocross ............................................................... 59

Limitations .................................................................................................................... 60

Future Research............................................................................................................ 61

Recommendations for Sport Psychology Consultants, Motocross Athletes, and Coaches
....................................................................................................................................... 61

    Summary………………………………………………………………………………62

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 63

APPENDICES .................................................................................................................. 69

APPENDIX A: BRACKETING INTERVIEW GUIDE .................................................. 70



ix

APPENDIX B: PILOT INTERVIEW GUIDE................................................................. 72

APPENDIX C: SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW GUIDE ....................................... 75

APPENDIX D: INFORMED CONSENT ........................................................................ 78

APPENDIX E: SAMPLE INTERPRETATIONS OF A TRANSCRIPT......................... 80

APPENDIX F: RESEARCHER CONFIDENTIALITY AGREEMENT......................... 92

Vita.................................................................................................................................... 94



x

List of Tables

Table 1. Co-Participants’ Demographics……………………………………………….. 29

Table 2. Outline of Themes and Sub-themes…………………………………………….33



1

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

In June 2004, I was approached by a professional motocross rider who was 

interested in developing a better mental plan for the upcoming motocross season. I told 

him that I would like to help him, but explained that I knew nothing about the sport of 

motocross. He sat down with me and spent nearly three hours explaining the nuances of 

the sport; included were comments about the grueling training and traveling schedules, 

the physical grind of competing ten months a year, the technical and mental differences 

in competing in the indoor (supercross) versus outdoor (motocross) seasons, and the 

constant pressure to keep sponsors and team managers happy. I was intrigued by the sport 

and excited by the fact that he felt mental training could enhance his performance during 

the upcoming outdoor season.

During our initial conversations, he conveyed to me that after consistently 

producing top ten results during the previous two supercross seasons he was unable to 

even crack the top 20 during the current motocross season. This occurred despite the fact 

that he enjoyed the openness of the motocross track more than the closed confines that 

define the supercross track. He expressed frustration at being unable to use his speed and 

superior fitness level, something that he explained was more beneficial during the 

motocross season than during the supercross season, to reach his desired results. He was 

getting poor starts, experiencing lapses in concentration, and making bad decisions when 

navigating through traffic and during turns. With these inconsistent results he wondered 

if he would ever erase the self-doubts that were hindering him during races. He also 

expressed to me that he had put the same amount of training into both seasons and that he 

was injury-free throughout both seasons.



2

During our first three sessions, we discussed the psychological skills that might 

benefit him in his professional career. Based on some of the suggestions that I made 

during these conversations, he decided to specifically implement four mental training 

techniques in the coming season. These included: (a) relaxation techniques to regulate 

arousal before races; (b) imagery to help him visualize good starts; (c) thought stoppage 

to help him eliminate distractions; and (d) attention control to regain focus. 

In addition to identifying psychological skills that might improve his 

performance, we also discussed various extraneous demands that could negatively affect 

his performance. First, he suggested that his sponsors were unhappy with his results and 

were going to re-evaluate his contract after each race. Second, he mentioned struggling 

with comments from other professionals in the field who felt he was overrated, past his 

prime, and did not represent a threat anymore. Third, he stated that his family members 

frequently accompanied him to his races where he footed the bill, and that their presence 

often distracted him. Fourth, he pointed out that he was away from his girlfriend for 

extended periods of time. Fifth, he indicated that his team required him to spend the 

majority of his time training and practicing on the West Coast despite having a practice 

track and technical coach in another part of the country. Finally, he stated that he was 

often required by his sponsors to make appearances at venues the day before traveling to 

a race while other sponsored riders were not required to do so; this left him tired and 

sluggish once he arrived at the race site.    

To gain a better understanding of what he experienced, he asked me to attend one 

of his motocross races in July of 2004. From this experience I was better able to 

appreciate all the nuances involved in racing during a professional motocross event, as 



3

well as observe his pre-race routine and the many distractions he dealt with in the 

moments leading up to the race. While he ended up performing quite well, it seemed that 

he had to deal with a variety of issues that demanded his attention prior to competing in 

addition to the mental demands involved in performing during the race. After the races, I 

asked him if what he was experiencing was stressful. While he mentioned that there were 

some components of professional motocross racing that he deemed annoying, 

bothersome, or frustrating, he did not perceive the experience itself as stressful. Although 

I perceived him to be competing in a stressful environment, he seemed to have the 

impression that these were merely demands that he needed to combat mentally, just like 

the track was something he needed to conquer physically. For someone who claimed to 

be “just an idiot that could ride a bike”, I found his remarks to be insightful. 

Upon further reflection I began to understand that there were several things about 

a professional motocross event that are unique. First, spectators are given a two-hour 

grace period to access the area where factory-sponsored trucks and ranked riders are 

located. While the fans are asked to leave one hour prior to the start of the first race, 

many continue to linger around the factory trucks to converse with the riders. Often, 

factory riders will return from practice sessions and have to sign autographs, pose for 

pictures, and interact with their fans. This takes the athlete away from preparatory 

activities such as reviewing video of the practice runs, replenishing the body with liquids, 

and resting or preparing for the upcoming race. This was very much the case for the 

athlete I was watching; he was constantly bombarded with various requests from fans to 

the point that he was almost late for his qualifying race. 



4

Another interesting factor is that family members and significant others often 

position themselves around the factory trailers where athletes prepare for races. While 

many of the athletes are happy to have family members around them before and after a 

race, my rider was quite bothered by the constant questions asked by his parents and 

grandparents. Coupled with the attention demanded by the fans, he had little time to 

prepare for the upcoming race.

Two other factors were amazing to me: (a) the relatively young age of these 

professionals; and (b) the small amount of money they make. Like sports such as tennis 

and gymnastics where there are a number of competitors in their teens, many of the 

motocross riders turn pro between the relatively young ages of 16 and 18 years. In 

addition, the purse for winning a motocross race is quite small, around $1500 for the 

winner, despite drawing up to 35, 000 people for an event. As a result, many of the riders 

have to supplement their income with endorsements from racing-related corporations. 

What makes this process even less profitable is that motocross agents often charge up to 

twenty percent for the endorsements they help secure for their athletes. While it is true 

that those riders who have factory contracts can receive anywhere from $30,000 to 

$500,000 a year, riders without corporate sponsors are in an untenable situation when 

trying to leverage a deal (personal communication with team manager of a professional 

team, 2005). 

My initial experience along with subsequent trips to other motocross events left 

me wondering whether other professional motocross riders shared similar experiences. I 

wondered about the professional riders who did not have the security of factory sponsors 

and whether they had similar experiences. While I did not think they had to worry about 



5

fans interacting with them before races, there were other monetary demands that may be 

influencing their experience.

In the remainder of this chapter, a brief summary of the aspects of the sport of 

motocross is provided. Next, a statement of the problem and the purpose of the study are 

given. And finally, assumptions, limitations, delimitations, and definitions used in this 

study are presented. 

The Context: Motocross 101

Often referred to as the original “extreme sport”, motocross started to gain 

popularity in the United States in the early 1970s (American Motocyclist Association 

Motocross, 2005). In 1971, the American Motorcyclist Association (AMA) organized a 

professional motocross race at the Daytona International Speedway and a year later, as 

American interest in the sport soared, the AMA decided to create a Motocross 

Championship Series. That same year, in an attempt to further increase American 

interest, the Los Angeles Coliseum was chosen as the site for a Supercross event. The 

event was so popular that the AMA Supercross Series became the nation’s most attended 

motocross event (American Motocyclist Association Motocross, 2005). 

Motocross versus supercross. While both AMA Motocross and Supercross Series 

have two classes of competition – the “Motocross Lite” class and the more prestigious 

“Motocross” class - there are differences between the two series (American Motocyclist 

Association Motocross, 2005).  Motocross events are held in rural parts of the country on 

closed dirt courses that range from a half a mile to two miles in length. The course 

demands that riders navigate through naturally formed hills, jumps, and other types of 

terrain that require them to constantly shift gears. For each motocross event, there are two 



6

races or motos for each class. There are 40 riders who compete in each moto, each lasting 

30 minutes plus two laps. Riders earn points based upon their finish in each moto and the 

winner is determined based on the aggregate scores of the two motos. Results during the 

final moto act as the tiebreaker. For example, if Rider 1 places 1st in Moto 1 (25 points) 

and 2nd in Moto 2 (22 points) and Rider 2 finishes 2nd in Moto 1 (22 points) and 1st in 

Moto 2 (25 points), then Rider 2 would win the overall title based on his superior 

performance during the second moto, despite the fact that both riders have the same 

number of total points. The riders compete throughout the summer months with the 

overall title being awarded to the individual with the highest point total during the 12

races in the series (American Motocyclist Association Motocross, 2005). 

Supercross, on the other hand, takes place on a man-made dirt track in a stadium 

environment, usually in an urban setting (American Motocyclist Association Motocross, 

2005). Because of the stadium environment, the race tracks are usually narrower, the 

races much shorter, and the riders far fewer (25 for the “Supercross” class and 20 for the 

“Supercross Lite” class). This type of setting forces riders to navigate through tighter 

traffic areas and narrower turns than they do in motocross events. In addition, the 

Supercross events include only one 20-lap race per class. There are a total of 16 

Supercross events with the Supercross Lite class being divided into separate East and 

West divisions. The Supercross Series riders compete in all 16 events during the season, 

which lasts from January to May. While supercross champions are often regarded as 

being technically superior for their ability to navigate under controlled conditions, 

motocross champions are usually respected for their strength, endurance and ability to 



7

compete at fast speeds during conditions of extreme heat and physical hardship 

(American Motocyclist Association Motocross, 2005). 

Motocross and motocross lite class. As previously mentioned, both the AMA 

Supercross Series and the AMA Motocross Championship Series includes two classes of 

competition – the Motocross Lite and premier Motocross class (American Motocyclist 

Association Motocross, 2005). The classes are based on the size of the engine of the 

motorcycles. The Motocross Lite class bikes are suited for riders who are often smaller in 

stature. These bikes accelerate quickly off the line and are easier to restart if a rider falls 

off. The Motocross bikes are more powerful than their Motocross Lite counterparts. 

However, they are generally heavier and more difficult to maneuver at lower speeds, 

especially when traction is less (American Motocyclist Association Motocross, 2005). 

Statement of the Problem

Professional motocross is a physically and mentally demanding sport. Riders 

often have to simultaneously execute various motor and cognitive tasks while remaining 

calm and focused. They have to stay focused on their own bike, the course, and their 

competitors, who are often only a couple of inches away, while also communicating with 

the pit crews (Klarica, 2001). To date, there has been only one study addressing the 

mental demands of motocross riders (Collins, Doherty, & Talbot, 1993). The results of 

this study suggest that detailed pre-performance planning and mental rehearsal are 

essential when developing motocross athletes’ performance (Collins, Doherty, & Talbot, 

1993). 



8

Significance 

While there has been a good deal of research investigating how elite athletes in 

other sports like figure skating (Gould, Jackson, & Finch, 1993b), wrestling (Gould, 

Ekland, & Jackson, 1992), the decathlon (Dale, 2000), and cricket (Holt, 2003) deal with 

the mental demands of their sport, there has been little research investigating the mental 

demands and coping strategies of motocross athletes, both on and off the track.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to gain an in-depth, comprehensive understanding 

of the mental demands experienced and coping strategies utilized by professional 

motocross riders. More specifically, an attempt was made to understand how professional 

motocross riders view the “mental demands” of their sport and how this perspective 

influences their mindset during practice, competition, and around teammates, friends, and 

family. To achieve this purpose, the following questions guided the research: (a) what are 

motocross riders’ perceptions of the words, “mental demands”?; (b) what are the mental 

demands related to being a professional motocross rider?; (c) when do the athletes 

experience these mental demands?; and (d) how to the athletes cope with the mental 

demands they experience both on and off the motocross track? 

Assumptions

The following assumptions were made relative to this study:

1) Participants were prepared to express themselves in a clear and coherent manner, 

to express feelings they experienced without hesitation or apprehension.

2) Participants truthfully described their thoughts, feelings, and beliefs based on the 

experiences of the mental demands of their sport. 



9

3) An interview study based on a semi-structured interview guide was a valid 

methodology for obtaining qualitative data and for accurately describing the 

mental demands and coping strategies of professional motocross riders. 

Limitations of the Study

As with most studies, there were several possible limitations to the present study. 

First, the findings of the present study characterized the experience of seven1 professional 

motocross athletes and cannot be generalized to all motocross riders. Second, these 

athletes were involved in a very competitive and demanding sport and were not eager to 

discuss sensitive issues or issues that made them feel vulnerable. As a result, they could 

have answered questions in a socially desirable manner rather than being forthright. 

Third, they were asked to recall previous experiences; it is possible they had difficulty 

remembering those experiences because they occurred the previous year. Fourth, one of 

the athletes who participated in the study asked to have his interview protocol removed 

from the data analysis. It seems that when he was interviewed some of his responses were 

not too favorable towards members of a former racing team of which he was no longer 

apart. Incidentally a month later when he reviewed his transcript he was again a member 

of that same team and was uncomfortable with his comments being included in the study, 

even after being reminded of the anonymity of his statements.  

                                                
1 One co-participant was interviewed but decided to withdraw after reviewing his transcript. This is 
explained in greater detail in Chapter V.   



10

Delimitations of the Study

For the purpose of this study, two delimitations were imposed:

1) Athletes had to have competed in either/both the 2005 AMA Supercross Series 

and AMA U.S. Motocross Championship Series.

2) Athletes had to be preparing to compete in the 2005-2006 AMA Supercross Series 

or U.S. Motocross Championship series. 

Definition of Terms

Constructivist Paradigm – “Constructivists assume a world in which universal, absolute 

realities are unknowable, and the objects of inquiry are individual perspectives or 

constructions of reality”(Hatch, 2002, p. 15).

Interpretive Analysis – Interpretation involves providing meaning to data. It involves 

“making sense of social situations by generating explanations for what’s going on within 

them. It’s about making inferences, developing insights, attaching significance, refining 

understandings, drawing conclusions, and extrapolating lessons” (Hatch, 2002, p. 180).

Qualitative Research – Researchers involved in qualitative analysis study things in the 

settings that they naturally occur and attempt to make sense of, or interpret the 

phenomena in question based on the meanings individuals prescribe to them. (Denzin & 

Lincoln, 2000, p.3).



11

CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF LITERATURE

For many athletes, being able to compete and perform at the highest level of their 

sport (i.e., the Olympics, professional leagues) is an achievement in and of itself. Some 

athletes thrive once they reach this stage, while others struggle with the demands (real or 

imagined) of reaching their own pre-competition expectations. To get a better 

understanding of how athletes (specifically, motocross riders) dealt with these types of 

demands, one needs to examine the factors affecting performance.

In this chapter, research related to the various factors that affect performance; 

including, (a) psychological factors; (b) environmental factors; and (c) the role of mental 

training in motocross is reviewed. Additionally, coping strategies that are undertaken by 

elite athletes in an attempt to deal with the various pressures they experience are 

examined.

Psychological Factors Affecting Performance

Previous research has identified a number of mental skills associated with peak 

performance (Orlick & Partington, 1988; Gould, Eklund, & Jackson, 1992a; 1992b; 

Hardy, Jones, & Gould, 1996; Williams & Krane, 2001). One of the first studies to 

examine these mental factors was conducted by Orlick and Partington (1988) in their 

work with Canadian athletes during the 1984 Summer Olympic Games. Through the use 

of interviews and surveys they found that athletes who were mentally ready to compete 

(e.g., able to focus their attention on the task as well as incorporate imagery into their 

preparation routine) achieved a higher level of performance than those who were not. 

Other factors that contributed to strong performances included being committed to the 

pursuit of excellence, having a detailed competition and fall-back plan in case something 



12

went awry before or during a competition, and being able to deal with distractions. 

Conversely, those athletes who did not perform up to expectations reported being unable 

to deal with such distractions. In addition, unsuccessful athletes expressed difficulties 

dealing with late team selections and with making changes when things were not going 

well. Orlick and Partington (1988) concluded that for athletes to be successful, 

particularly in an event as significant as the Olympics, they need to be mentally prepared 

and focused on their performance during both training and actual competition.

In a similar study, Gould, Eklund, & Jackson (1992a; 1992b) interviewed 20 

members of the 1988 U.S. Wrestling team competing at the Seoul Olympics. While 

several wrestlers performed quite well during the games, USA Wrestling officials felt 

that others succumbed to the pressures brought about by the tournament. Disappointed 

with some of the performances, USA Wrestling commissioned a study to identify 

psychological factors that may have contributed to both successful and unsuccessful 

performances. The interview results indicated that there was a great deal of consistency 

amongst team members when recalling their best Olympic performance. All 20 wrestlers 

reported feeling quite confident, focused, and optimally aroused. All athletes suggested 

that they followed their mental preparation plans and were able to focus on the tactical 

strategies required for the successful execution of moves. Conversely, when asked to 

recall their worst Olympic performance, the athletes recalled feeling a lack of confidence, 

increased negative feeling states, and an inability to focus on task-relevant cues. They 

also experienced difficulty following their preparation plans.  These results are consistent 

with those obtained by Orlick and Partington (1988) suggesting that mental skills play a 

vital role in elite-level performance (Gould, Eklund, & Jackson, 1992a; 1992b). 



13

In another series of studies, Gould and colleagues (Gould, Finch, & Jackson, 

1993; Gould, Jackson, & Finch, 1993a; 1993b) investigated the experiences of several 

national champion figure skaters.  The goal of the three studies was to determine the 

“levels of stress, sources of stress, and stress-coping strategies” experienced by figure 

skaters (Gould, Jackson, & Finch, 1993b, p. 134). The types of stress athletes identified 

included: (a) relationship issues with coaches, significant others and family members; (b) 

dealing with the expectations to succeed; (c) psychological, physical and environmental 

demands; and (d) life direction concerns (e.g., life-career and skating career concerns). 

The skaters identified a number of mental skills they used to cope with the various 

stressors they experienced. These skills included self-talk, maintaining a positive 

mindset, effective time management, arousal regulation, pre-competition routines, 

purposeful training, and ignoring stressors. The skaters suggested that taking risks and 

not being afraid to learn from mistakes, ridding themselves of the impossible notion of 

perfection, and surrounding themselves with a positive support system were effective 

ways of dealing with the stress of being a national figure skating champion. 

These results parallel those obtained in an earlier study by Scanlan, Stein, and 

Ravizza (1991) examining the sources of stress of former elite figure skaters. Stressors 

identified by athletes in that study related to the negative aspects of competition such as 

concerns about significant others (e.g., interpersonal conflict), the financial and 

psychological demands of skating, and personal struggles associated with competing. 

Taken together, the results of these studies further strengthen the notion that mental skills 

play a significant role in elite level athletic performance, particularly when athletes must 



14

deal with the various stressors involved in highly competitive environments (Gould, et 

al., 1993, 1993a, 1993b).  

In their book dealing with the psychological preparation of elite performers in 

sport, Hardy, Jones, and Gould (1996) suggest that there are four basic mental skills that 

help athletes prepare for performance. These skills include relaxation, goal setting, 

mental rehearsal and imagery, and self-talk. With the appropriate mental skills training 

(i.e., arousal regulation, concentration and attention control, and coping with adversity), 

the athlete can enhance his/her prospects of achieving a desired performance level. In 

another examination of the characteristics of peak performance, Williams and Krane 

(2001) identified a number of psychological characteristics and mental skills of elite 

athletes. These included having a high level of motivation and commitment to the task, a 

well-defined practice and competition routine, and a strong belief in one’s ability to 

perform. Athletes who demonstrate these skills during a performance are presumably in a 

better position to achieve success than athletes who do not (Williams & Krane, 2001).

Environmental Factors Affecting Performance

While it seems to be clear from the existing literature that mental skills play a key 

role in producing elite level performance, it is also important to consider the influence of 

environmental factors. More specifically, there are external components of an athlete’s 

sporting life (e.g., training, rehabilitation, team meetings, contract negotiations) that need 

to be recognized when examining the athlete’s performance (Noblet & Gifford, 2002). In 

an attempt to identify these factors, Woodman and Hardy (1998) found that various 

organizational stressors (e.g., politics within influential organizations, lack of 

administration professionalism and planning) could hinder an athlete’s ability to perform. 



15

Gould et al. (1999) interviewed athletes and coaches from eight teams competing in the 

1996 Atlanta Olympic Games in order to determine the factors that affected Olympic 

performance for successful and less successful U.S. teams. The results revealed that those 

who were successful felt they had met or exceeded expectations, were highly focused, 

committed to the task, participated in mental training programs, and had positive family 

and crowd support. Conversely, participants on less successful teams felt they did not 

meet expectations, had team cohesion issues, had problems with travel and with their 

coach, and were unable to remain focused and committed during their events. Based on 

the results of these studies, it seems that the ability of athletes and coaches to work 

together to reach peak performance, particularly at an event as demanding as the 

Olympics, is influenced by a variety of physical, social, psychological and organizational 

factors.

While the studies previously mentioned have examined the role of stress in the 

overall sporting experience of skaters and Olympic athletes, Noblet and Gifford (2002) 

felt that there was a need to understand the sources of stress experienced by professionals 

competing in team sports. Possible sources included being traded, facing contract 

disputes, relocation concerns, and fear of loss of job. Using a qualitative research design 

incorporating both semi-structured interviews and focus group responses, Noblet and 

Gifford (2002) found six themes representing the sources of stress experienced by 

professional footballers. These included: (a) problems associated with the work/non-work 

interface (e.g., relocation concerns, work-non work conflict); (b) demanding nature of the 

work (e.g., job content concerns, injuries); (c) negative aspects of interpersonal 

relationships (e.g., coaching staff, support staff); (d) career development concerns (e.g., 



16

uncertain football future, post-football uncertainty); (e) worries about performance 

expectations and standards (e.g., negative aspects of performance expectations, negative 

aspects of actual performance, performance uncertainty); and (f) negative aspects of 

organizational systems and culture (e.g., poor communication, low participation in 

decision making, negative cultural norms). The athletes also identified sources of stress 

that were unrelated to the stressors associated with the competitive environment, such as 

a lack of feedback, difficulty balancing football and school, and lack of job security. 

Taken together, the results indicated the importance of understanding both competition 

and non-competition sources of stress when developing strategies to manage these 

stressors.  

The Role of Mental Training in Motocross

Motor sports competition is one of the most physically and mentally demanding 

of competitive activities (Klarica, 2001). As mentioned previously, drivers often have to 

simultaneously execute various motor and cognitive tasks while remaining calm and 

focused. Riders must maintain concentration on a number of situational factors in a sport 

where there is little room for error. When a rider loses focus, especially during difficult 

turns and jumps, serious injuries can result (Klarica, 2001).

While it is obvious that motocross riders experience a variety of mental demands, 

only one study has addressed these issues. Collins, Doherty, and Talbot (1993) reported a 

case study of a professional motocross rider who was experiencing concentration lapses 

during races.  The researchers used psychological inventories and interviews to obtain a 

better understanding of the rider’s mental state.  They also used physiological 

assessments to identify the physical demands of the sport and determine the rider’s 



17

current fitness level. In addition, they conducted a simulated competition to better assess 

his nutritional and physiological levels. Data from the laboratory assessments suggested 

that the rider’s concentration lapses were based on non-psychological factors. Through 

the manipulation of his dietary intake (based on educational counseling), changes to the 

race routine were recommended to promote more effective refueling. After making these 

modifications in his training schedules, the athlete reported a significant decrease in 

concentration concerns. Based on the test results, Collins and colleagues (1993) also 

recommended modifications in the rider’s pre- and post-race eating and drinking habits in 

an effort to minimize fatigue and alleviate dehydration, which had been two barriers to 

his performance. The resulting diagnosis and intervention included a combination of 

physiological and nutritional adjustments.

In addition, Collins and colleagues (1993) felt that mental skills training was 

important for the sport of motocross. More specifically, they deemed that the athlete 

needed to “develop the most effective program possible and then to reproduce this 

response consistently, lap by lap, in the competitive situation” (p. 294). They also 

introduced the rider to three mental training skills - attentional control, pre-competition 

routines, and imagery - to strengthen his mental resolve when preparing for competitions. 

Over a three month period, the athlete conducted race-specific practices (and imagery 

sessions) based on the requirements and physical demands imposed by the upcoming race 

track. For example, once at the race site, the athlete walked the course and noted any 

peculiarities or modifications he needed to make prior to the race. The rider then noted 

technique-based cue words pertinent to each section of the track; these related to passing 

lines, paths he should take to prevent being passed, and mood words. He then gave a 



18

condensed version of these words to his mechanic who put them on flash cards to help 

the rider remember the terms once the race began. After the three-month intervention, the 

athlete reported no recurrence of his original lapses in concentration, as well as no reports 

of the late-race mistakes that had plagued his performances prior to the intervention. 

These results suggested that the implementation of detailed imagery and a strong pre-race 

plan were helpful in maximizing the athlete’s performance. 

Coping Strategies in Sport 

A number of studies have identified mental skills and mental demands associated 

with peak performance (Orlick & Partington, 1988; Gould, Eklund, & Jackson, 1992a; 

1992b; Hardy, Jones, & Gould, 1996; Williams & Krane, 2001). Recently, there has been 

a growing interest in identifying the stressors experienced by athletes. Researchers have 

found that athletes experience various forms of stress (e.g., performance, occupational, 

interpersonal and organizational) which are exacerbated by relationships with coaches, 

training facilities, and self-presentation concerns (Gould, Eklund, & Jackson, 1992; 

Gould, Jackson, & Finch, 1993; Scanlan, Stein, & Ravizza, 1991). For example, in a 

study of elite figure skaters, Scanlan et al. (1991) found that athletes reported feelings of 

stress stemming from: (a) the physical and mental demands placed on skaters; (b) 

negative relationships with other performers and coaches; and (c) negative feelings 

associated with competition. In a similar study, Gould et al. (1993) found that 

relationship issues, as well as psychological, physical and environmental concerns had a 

direct affect on the stress level of national figure skating champions. James and Collins 

(1997) interviewed 20 competitors from a variety of sports and also found that many of 

these athletes experienced stress over leaving negative impressions on individuals within 



19

their sporting context (e.g., teammates, coaches, friends, and strangers). 

There has also been an increased interest in the behavioral and cognitive strategies 

incorporated by athletes in response to such stressors (Gould et al., 1992; Gould et al., 

1993).  Gould and colleagues (1992, 1993) found that elite wrestlers and figure skaters 

used cognitive (e.g., thought stoppage, self-talk), emotional (e.g., relaxation, 

visualization), and behavioral (e.g., time management, disengagement) strategies to deal 

with the various pressures to perform. These findings were particularly insightful because 

the coping strategies athletes used were linked to the specific sources of stress they 

mentioned in the first part of the interview study (Gould et al., 1993).

A qualitative study by Dale (2000) revealed that elite decathletes utilized coping 

strategies, including imagery and relaxation, prior to and during competitions. Athletes in 

this study used task-related cues to combat distractions, maintained a consistent routine 

throughout each event, and became friends with opponents in order to release 

competition-related stress (Dale, 2000).  

Despite these findings, much remains to be learned about the stress and coping 

strategies of athletes. Lazarus (1999, 2000) recommended that future researchers explore 

the coping strategies of various athletic subgroups in order to better understand how 

various individuals adapt to stressful situations and why others do not. Furthermore, he 

felt that it is essential for researchers to document the coping strategies that athletes use 

when faced with various challenges and demands. This would be beneficial for both 

researchers and practitioners in identifying strategies athletes might use to manage 

stressful situations. 

Another study examining the coping responses of a professional cricket player 



20

was conducted by Holt (2003). Using a phenomenological approach, Holt (2003) 

conducted four in-depth interviews with one professional cricket player to better 

understand how he dealt with the daily hassles experienced in his sport. The results 

indicated that the athlete’s stress appraisals were associated with the endangerment to 

performance-related goals and values. The coping strategies he incorporated to deal with 

these stressors included: (a) evaluation and planning (e.g., understanding environmental 

conditions, learning about opponents’ strengths and weaknesses, reading new opponents); 

(b) proactive psychological skills (e.g., building confidence, maintaining concentration); 

and (c) reactive psychological strategies (e.g., displaying resilience, using self-talk). 

Another study examining the role of coping strategies in sport was conducted by 

Giacobbi, Foote, and Weinberg (2004). The purpose of their study was twofold: (a) to fill 

a void in the stress and coping literature by exploring sources of stress experienced by 

skilled and moderately skilled golfers; and (b) to identify the most common coping 

strategies used by golfers. Giacobbi and colleagues (2004) identified four general stress 

themes: (a) evaluative others (e.g., people watching and concern over playing partners); 

(b) specific performance challenges (e.g., club selection, and course management); (c) 

psycho-emotional concerns (i.e., frustrations over play and attempts to maintain 

momentum); and (d) competitive stress (e.g., tournament and non-tournament pressure 

situations). They also identified six commonly used coping strategies: (a) cognitive 

techniques (e.g., mental imagery, self-talk reminders); (b) relaxation techniques (e.g., 

breathing exercises); (c) off-course efforts (e.g., club choice, judging distance, lessons); 

(d) golf-course strategies (e.g., pre-shot routine, evaluative others and mechanical 

concerns); (e) avoidance coping (e.g., the use of alcohol and distraction control); and (f) 



21

emotion-focused coping (e.g., venting and humor). Golfers reported using various 

mental, behavioral and emotional-focused cues to effectively cope with each stressful 

situation and often incorporated more than one coping strategy in response to specific 

sources of stress (Dale, 2000; Gould et al., 1992; Gould et al., 1993). Although 

participants in this study were non-elite athletes, the results were rather consistent with 

those of previous coping research. Both the skilled and moderately skilled golfers 

maintained a positive mindset during adversity and incorporated cognitive, behavioral 

and emotion-focused coping strategies. However, unlike the findings from studies with 

elite athletes, moderately skilled golfers reported a greater variety of avoidance strategies 

(Dale, 2000; Gould et al., 1992; Gould et al., 1993). Giacobbi and colleagues (2004) 

posited that part of the reason less skilled golfers are less skilled is because they do not 

use more effective forms of coping, such as planning and seeking advice. 

Summary

While there is a good deal of information regarding how elite athletes in other 

sports like figure skating (Gould, Jackson, & Finch, 1993b), wrestling (Gould, Ekland, & 

Jackson, 1992), and the decathlon (Dale, 2000) deal with the mental demands of their 

sport, virtually nothing is known of the mental demands encountered by motocross 

athletes both on and off the track. The only study to date suggests that detailed pre-

performance planning and mental rehearsal have the potential to enhance motocross 

athlete’s performance (Collins, Doherty, & Talbot, 1993). Therefore, the current 

qualitative study was undertaken to investigate motocross athletes’ experiences of the 

mental demands and coping strategies of their sport. The intent of this study was to give 

voice to motocross athletes who have historically been neglected in sport psychology 



22

research and to increase our understanding of the way these athletes experience the 

various mental demands of their sport and cope with them. 



23

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY 

Prior to conducting qualitative research, it is important to select a paradigm, 

ontology, and epistemology. In this chapter, each of these issues is discussed. In addition,  

results from the bracketing interview are presented, co-participants are described, and the 

procedures and analysis used in the study are presented.

Paradigm

A paradigm demonstrates the researcher’s philosophy, ontology, and 

epistemology. In essence, an individual’s paradigm reflects his/her worldview, values, 

framework of beliefs, and research methods (Hatch, 2002). I believe that the mental 

demands of motocross riders are different than those of other professional athletes. I 

believe that due to the extreme nature of the sport, professional motocross riders 

experience heightened mental demands throughout the course of the indoor and outdoor 

seasons. I believe that years of experience, the type of bike and the type of sponsorship 

obtained by an athlete influences his perception of the mental demands of professional 

motocross. I believe that sport psychology consultants can benefit from a better 

understanding of the experiences, mental demands and coping strategies associated with 

the sport. I believe that knowledge is constructed and co-constructed and that reality and 

truth are created and defined within individual perspectives. Based on my beliefs, I chose 

to conduct the present research within a constructivist paradigm (Hatch, 2002). 

Ontology. According to Denzin and Lincoln (2000), each “researcher approaches 

the world with a set of ideas, a framework” (p.18) that constitutes how that researcher 

sees reality. According to Hatch (2002), “constructivists assume a world in which 

universal, absolute realities are unknowable, and the objects of inquiry are individual 



24

perspectives or constructions of reality” (p. 15). Within sport psychology, a constructivist 

view would suggest that it is essential to understand how each athlete is affected 

differently by each situation or intervention.  It is assumed that each athlete constructs his 

or her own reality regarding the sport experience based on his/her experience. 

Epistemology. Epistemology is the process whereby an individual comes to know 

things about the nature of reality. Using a constructivist approach, I conducted this study 

from the epistemological belief that the co-participants2 and I co-constructed knowledge 

about their experiences (Hatch, 2002).  

Bracketing Interview

Bracketing requires that [researchers] work to become aware of our own 

assumptions, feeling, and preconceptions, and then, that we strive to put them 

aside – to bracket them – in order to be open and receptive to what we are 

attempting to understand.  (Ely, 1991, p. 50)

It is imperative when conducting qualitative research that the researcher be aware 

of how her/his preconceived notions may lead to biased or leading questioning. These 

presuppositions, if unaddressed, may undermine the integrity of the data. Pollio, Henley 

and Thompson (1997) suggest that interviewers might possess three possible biases: (a) 

the interviewer unilaterally decides what is valid or invalid; (b) the interviewer judges 

participants’ comments to be illogical because they do not seem to follow traditional 

norms; and (c) the interviewer discusses the participant’s description of the "real" 

experience because it does not fall under a specific theoretical framework. 

                                                
2 I chose to call this sample of athletes “co-participants” because the co-participants and myself co-created 
knowledge.



25

In an attempt to identify any presuppositions or assumptions I had regarding the 

mental demands and coping strategies associated with motocross, I participated in a 

bracketing interview prior to conducting the pilot interview and main study interviews 

(see Appendix A). The bracketing interview allowed me to become aware of any 

preconceived notions I had that could have lead me to ask biased or leading questions. 

The bracketing interview was conducted by a sport psychology professor who had 

previous experience with semi-structured interviews. The bracketing interview involved 

the essence of the interview guide I would be using with the participants with one 

exception: Since I had not competed as a professional motocross rider, my bracketing 

interview focused on what I assumed were the mental demands and coping strategies 

experienced by professional motocross riders (see Appendix A). 

Results from the bracketing interview suggested that I expected each co-

participant to discuss the fear of injury, strains of travel, separation from family, 

equipment concerns, and lack of security regarding sponsorship. I also felt that the riders 

would have difficulties interacting with other teammates and use various outlets to cope 

with the mental demands of their sport by doing things like working out, spending time 

with significant others/friends, drinking, sleeping, and watching video analysis of 

performances. Additionally, I felt that some athletes might use mental training to help 

face the demands of their sport, particularly that of recovering from injury.  I also 

expected the riders to discuss the increased responsibilities they experienced as a 

professional compared to when they were amateurs. 



26

Pilot Interview

Prior to conducting the main study interviews, I conducted a pilot interview (see 

Appendix B) with a rookie professional motocross rider. The rationale for conducting a 

pilot interview was to gain experience with the interview guide and, more specifically, to 

see if any questions needed to be added or omitted based on the responses provided by 

the interviewee. From this interview, it was determined that two questions would be 

added to the guide. The first concerned motocross riders’ relationships with teammates 

and the other involved the relationships riders had with their bikes. (Note: The pilot study 

rider mentioned on a couple of occasions during the interview that his bike would often 

break down during practice, which would leave him rather flustered). Several other minor 

changes were made to the sequencing of questions prior to conducting the main study 

interviews.  

Procedure

The revised semi-structured interview guide (see Appendix C), was used in the 

main study. My role was to assist and guide the interview rather than dictate precisely 

what ensued (Smith, Harre & Van Langehove, 1995). Thus, I used the interview guide to 

address specific objectives while allowing co-participants the freedom to respond in any 

way they chose. 

Since I had worked as a sport psychology consultant with a few motocross riders 

competing on the circuit, initial contact was made through verbal conversations I had 

with potential participants prior to a race I attended in August, 2005. Following the pilot 

interview, which was conducted in early January 2006, I asked the rider if he knew any 

other motocross athletes who might be interested in sharing their experience (Huck, 



27

2000). From this initial interview, I was made aware of three other riders who 

subsequently agreed to participate in the study. Additional co-participants were recruited 

using a similar snowball technique. 

Once a possible co-participant was identified, I contacted him by telephone to see 

if he was willing to participate in the study. If he agreed, we chose a mutual time and 

place for us to engage in the interview.  Five of the interviews were conducted face-to-

face in the hotel rooms of co-participants during a weekend race. The other three 

interviews were conducted over the telephone. The interviews varied in length from 28 to 

66 minutes. Interestingly, the interviews conducted over the telephone were shorter in 

duration and yielded less qualitative data than those conducted face-to-face. 

Before the interviews began, I informed each co-participant about the purpose of 

the study, that the interview was going to be audiotaped, and that confidentiality would 

be maintained by removing any identifiers, including team sponsors, teammates and 

locations of races from the transcripts. Each co-participant signed a consent form 

(Appendix D) and selected a pseudonym to represent themselves before participating in 

the interview. 

At the beginning of the interview, I asked co-participants to provide general 

demographic information (e.g., years involved in the sport, who got them involved in the 

sport, racing team sponsors types of injury). Next, I asked the co-participant to respond to 

a series of open-ended questions designed to obtain insights into his experience of the 

mental demands and coping strategies of being a professional motocross rider (see 

Appendix C). These included questions like “What are some of the mental demands of 

being a professional motocross rider?”, “Do you experience any of these demands?”, 



28

“How do you cope with these demands during practice?”, and “When are the mental 

demands a distraction for you?” This allowed me to further probe each co-participant’s 

response (Kvale, 1996). Probing questions such as “What was that like for you?”, “How 

does that make you feel?” and “Talk more about that” were asked to encourage a thicker 

and richer description of each rider’s experience of the mental demands and coping 

strategies of his sport (Pollio et al., 1997). 

I asked the questions one after the other, allowing each co-participant sufficient 

time to exhaust his answer. As a result, the order of the questions varied depending on the 

direction that the co-participant chose to go when responding to questions. By allowing 

each co-participant to dictate the flow of the interview, I was able to maximize the 

potential richness of the data (Patton, 2002). On a couple of occasions, the co-

participant’s response elicited further questions from me. In such cases, I posed the 

questions immediately following the co-participant’s response. All interviews were 

audio-taped using a digital recorder and later transcribed by me.

Co-Participants

The co-participants in this study consisted of eight3 professional motocross riders 

who competed in either the premier Supercross/Motocross class or the 

Supercross/Motocross Lite class during the 2005 AMA Supercross Series and/or the 

AMA U.S. Motocross Championship series (see Table 1). Their ages ranged from 19 to 

                                                
3 One of the athletes who participated in the study asked to have his interview protocol removed from the 
data analysis. When he was initially interviewed he provided responses that were not too favorable towards 
members of a racing team of which he was no longer a part. A month later, when he reviewed his transcript 
he rejoined that same team and was uncomfortable with his original interview.



29

Table 1

Co-Participants’ Demographics

Athlete * Race Competed in 2005 Age in Years Years as

Supercross/Motocross/Both Professional

Phil White Supercross and Motorcross 19 2

Rick White Motocross 19 2

James White Motocross 20 4

Mike White Supercross and Motocross 21 3

Ernie African- Supercross and Motocross 23 4

American

Rob White Supercross and Motocross 24 5

Karl White Supercross and Motocross 24 5

* = self selected pseudonym 

24 years (M=21.43) and their total years of experience as a professional rider ranged                                                                                                 

from two to five years (M=3.57). Six of the co-participants were United States citizens, 

while one participant held dual citizenship. One co-participant self-identified as African-

American while the other six self-identified as Caucasian. All seven of the co-participants 

were single with no children.  

Data Analysis

According to Polkinghorne (1989), the premise behind qualitative data analysis is 

to provide structure and clarity in the results based on the raw data provided by the co-



30

participants. Several researchers have provided comparable frameworks for analyzing 

and interpreting qualitative data (e.g., Cote, Salmela, Baria & Russell, 1993; Dale, 1996; 

Hatch, 2002; Tesch, 1990). Using a hybrid of those approaches, I analyzed the data in 

this study in the following way. First I transcribed the interviews verbatim. I then read 

through the transcripts several times to become thoroughly familiar with the data as a 

whole (Hatch, 2002). Next, I re-read the transcripts and attempted to systematically 

create and record my impressions of what I believed occurred within the context of the 

data (Hatch, 2002).  I wrote these interpretations down in memos on the margin of the 

transcripts and then attempted to search for patterns in the co-participants’ experiences 

(see Appendix E for a sample). This process of discovering meaningful units involved 

highlighting and color-coding each statement according to a relevant topic or major area 

of discussion (Kvale, 1996). Following that, I re-read the data once more and began to 

code them (Hatch, 2002). This process helped me decide whether my initial impressions 

were supported by the data. 

After identifying the major thematic areas emerging from the data for each 

individual, I compared and contrasted these themes across co-participants. This process 

allowed me to explore the similarities and differences in co-participants’ experiences 

until I achieved consensus. 

Finally, I summarized my interpretations of the memos by writing a draft 

summary for each transcript. This process forced me to put my interpretations of the data 

in a story form that others could understand (Hatch, 2002). Two other researchers 

familiar with qualitative data analysis also examined the transcripts independently 

(Patton, 2002).  Each signed a confidentiality agreement (see Appendix F). I then met 



31

with the researchers to compare our results and discuss the development of major themes. 

Various themes and subthemes were rearranged or removed entirely as a result of this 

discussion until we achieved consensus.

I then sent the draft summary and transcript to each co-participant and asked him 

if it represented an accurate summary of his experiences (Polkinghorne, 1989) of the 

mental demands and coping strategies of motocross. I gave each rider an opportunity to 

expand upon what I wrote and to convey any thoughts he may have previously left out 

during the initial interview. The purpose of this process was to gauge whether my 

interpretations accurately encompassed the experiences of the co-participants 

(Polkinghorne, 1989). One co-participant asked that several sections of his interview 

concerning his relationship with his teammates be removed because he felt his emotions 

during the time of the interview did not accurately reflect his true relationship with them. 

As previously mentioned, another co-participant asked that his data be removed entirely 

from the analysis as he was concerned about jeopardizing future sponsorships should his 

interview be published.



32

CHAPTER IV: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In this chapter, the findings derived from the interpretive analysis are presented 

and discussed relative to previous literature. The findings were divided into themes and 

further divided into sub-themes. The major themes and their related sub-themes are 

discussed and quotes supporting each theme are presented.

Thorough examination of the data revealed seven major themes. The first four 

themes dealt with the mental demands experienced by the co-participants and included: 

(a) the racing environment; (b) the nature of the sport; (c) expectations; and (d) 

relationships with others. The remaining three themes dealt with the coping strategies 

used by motocross riders to deal with those demands and included: (e) thought control; 

(f) staying focused; and (g) emotional control. The related sub-themes and supporting 

quotes are discussed in two parts: (a) mental demands of the sport; and (b) coping 

strategies used to deal with those demands. A table illustrating the major themes and 

related sub-themes is provided (see Table 2).

Mental Demands

The following themes and sub-themes illustrated the mental demands experienced 

by professional motocross riders. 

Racing Environment 

The first major theme, racing environment, described the athletes’ experiences 

with the mental demands of motocross. Many riders spoke about race-related concerns 

that go through their heads as they prepare to compete. The three sub-themes that 

supported this theme were: (a) bike issues; (b) opponents; and (c) “nerves”.



33

Table 2

Outline of Themes and Sub-themes

Themes Sub-themes

Mental Demands

1. Racing environment Bike issues

Opponents

“Nerves”

2. Nature of the sport Training concerns

Injuries

3. Expectations Expectations from others

Expectations of self

4. Relationship with others Teammates

Sponsors

Coping Strategies

1. Thought control Dealing with distractions

Controllable factors

Reframing

2. Staying focused Focusing on the present 

Pre-performance routines

3. Emotional control Regulating arousal

Mental training techniques



34

Bike issues. Many co-participants mentioned that one of the more frustrating 

elements about racing was the uncertainty that sometimes arose with their bike. It seemed 

quite obvious to them that not having a bike they could rely on made focusing on other 

race important demands very difficult. Phil stated:

When I was on [name of bike], I definitely knew I had a good bike and a 

competitive bike. When I was on the [name of bike], I didn’t feel like I had the 

best bike out there. Definitely it was a stressful issue for me cause when I get to 

the line, my bike wouldn’t start, or something stupid would happen. Then I would 

think ‘if my bike doesn’t start now, what is going to happen on the track?’ It was 

frustrating not really knowing what was going to happen with your bike.

Ernie expressed a similar attitude when he said: 

Sometimes it is really frustrating. When you go test all week and then you go to 

the race and sometimes it is really frustrating, really hard to explain what is going 

on with the bike. So a lot of times it is really frustrating trying to work it out 

because if you don’t go to the race ready there really is not a lot of time at the 

races to practice or to figure things out.

However, Mike talked about how it was easy for riders to use bike issues to rationalize 

their performance. He stated:

Sometimes you psyche yourself out that your bike is not good even though it is 

because you are not doing as good as you could. You are not thinking right things 

or whatever. Sometimes you will blame it on stuff like some people do.

It was clear from co-participants’ interviews that bike issues were a source of frustration.



35

Opponents. Many co-participants indicated that concerns about their opponents

affected the way they viewed a race. James mentioned that knowing who his opponents 

were could shape his feelings about racing. He stated: 

You get psyched out sometimes if there is someone else faster than you. You can 

be like ‘oh crap, that guy is here, oh no’…happen[s] to a lot of people. I know 

tons of people that would be really fast during practice times, but then they go to a 

race, and they will be like, ‘oh man, there are a lot of people here, that guy is 

here’, so they just don’t think they can do it.

Phil also mentioned that sometimes he focused so much on his opponent that he lost 

focus on what he needed to do before races. He said:

At a pro race I always name all the names ahead in my class, and basically 

probably 25-30 of them are pretty much fast guys, and I always contemplate on 

that. I just dwell on it so bad. It sucks, but I get so nervous about it before a race 

and that is why I do so bad sometimes because I am thinking about it.

Many of the motocross riders in the current study showed feelings of concern and 

intimidation regarding the presence of other riders who they perceived as being better 

than them. Those feelings of intimidation could induce negative self-talk and maladaptive 

levels of arousal, which would have a negative affect on performance. Scanlan and 

colleagues (1991) also reported that worries about the performance of others can increase 

levels of stress for some athletes.  

Nerves. The sub-theme nerves described the feelings of pre-performance anxiety 

experienced by many of the riders. They mentioned how the demands of a professional 

race, compared to their previous experiences with amateur racing, brought about such 



36

feelings of anxiety. Specifically, Phil described nervous feelings he had lining up at the 

gate right before a race: 

Definitely, right before the race starts, [when] going up to the line. [That is] the 

worst part for me at a race. I get so nervous sometimes. At amateur races I was 

never really that bad.

Ernie added that he had a hard time handling all the nervous energy and concentrating on 

what he needed to do, because there were so many thoughts running through his head. He 

stated:

For me, I still have the whole nervous jitters. ‘Wow, here I am racing in the 

outdoor nationals!’ So for me it is real exciting. I get really nervous and start 

thinking, ‘I hope the team will be happy with what I do’, ‘I hope I don’t choke’. 

There is a lot of things that are going through my mind that I try hard to block out. 

I try to concentrate on the start ‘I need a good start’. Get a good pace. There are 

several different things.

The term “nerves” in this study described riders’ feelings of nervousness and anxiety in 

addition their concerns regarding how they handled the pressures of competition and 

particularly being scared before competition. The nervousness and anxiety experienced 

by these riders may have been augmented by the tenuous nature of the sport. It is not 

unheard of for sponsors to terminate the contracts of their riders, especially those riders 

who are not performing to the sponsors/factory team’s expectations. Additionally, many 

of the riders in this study did not perform as well as professionals as they had when they 

were amateurs. This may have further heightened their feelings of nervousness. Feelings 

of competition anxiety experienced by these athletes prior to performance are consistent 



37

with the findings from earlier studies (Scanlan et al., 1991; Gould et al., 1993; Noblet & 

Gifford, 2002).   

Nature of the Sport

The second major theme associated with mental demands dealt with the nature of 

the sport was on professional motocross riders. The two related sub-themes were: (a) 

training concerns; and (b) injuries. 

Training concerns. Training concerns represented the perceptions co-participants 

had regarding the grueling physical and mental nature of professional motocross. 

Specifically, Phil suggested that it was difficult to get motivated to do all the little things 

during practice to prepare for competition: 

Obviously, you have to deal with your training, eating right, doing everything 

right before a race, which sometimes it is hard getting motivated to do. But, that’s 

part of the sport. That’s what you got to do, train and get ready to race… 

Sometimes I won’t really want to do it just because I am not motivated to do it, 

because sometimes you just want a day off. It kicks your butt to do, but you know 

you are better for doing it.

Karl even talked about the mind games that other riders play during practice and how that 

affected the manner in which he approached practice sessions:

The biggest thing I have during practice [occurs] when riding with other guys. 

Sometimes you are off your game a little bit in practice and someone else that you 

know you are faster than will be going faster and it is kind of frustrating. That is 

one of the biggest things I got, especially living out in [the western states]. There 

are so many guys that everyday when you go out riding and there are different 



38

tracks and someone is faster at different tracks and everyone tries to hop in with 

you or you go to ride with someone else and they pull off because they don’t want 

you to ride with them. Just the whole mental game that guys tend to pull out here 

is kind of frustrating.

Rick talked about needing an extended break at the end of the season because he was so 

burnt out from training and riding:

Especially towards the end of the year sometimes I get a loss of focus. Like I 

don’t want to work out. I get burnt out. I should be like, ‘I should keep on keeping 

on, and don’t give up and keep going’, but usually I am like, ‘I don’t want to do 

riding anymore’. Well, you know, racing all year-round and riding all the time, 

you start to get drained. It is not that fun for you anymore. You want a break. I 

always need a break for at least a month where I am not really riding so I can 

recoup so I get that drive to want to really race again.

Injuries. The sub-theme injuries described the mental demands associated with 

injuries, which many of the riders found to be central to the nature of the sport of 

motocross. Specifically, Rob described how difficult it was to go back and practice after 

sustaining an injury:

… whenever you get hurt, like say you got hurt on a set of whoops [bumps], it is 

kind of mentally demanding to be able to go out the next time and hit the whoops 

just like you have never crashed down. Sometimes you get scared, not scared 

(emphasis added), but you get that mental block in your mind that, ‘oh, I can’t hit 

those whoops’ and then I crash. I guess that is kind of mentally demanding.

Interestingly, Rob edited himself by first saying “scared” but then taking it back. 



39

However, James stated how important it was for him to return to the bike and face the 

nerves associated with potential re-injury: 

Any racer when they get hurt, as quick as they can, [should] get back on that bike 

unless they are really injured (emphasis added). ‘I got to get back on that bike, I 

got to try harder this time, it is only going to try to make you want to get fitter’. 

You want to learn from your mistakes. I know definitely after I broke my [leg 

bone] twice I have been a little sketched out sometimes when trying certain 

things. When there is a big jump, or something that normally I would not be 

scared to do, now I am thinking ‘well is it worth it now?’ I definitely get a little 

nervous about doing stuff in certain sections or something like that.

It appears that motocross riders feel that there is “injured” and there is “really injured”. 

Phil faced the frustration of dealing with a multitude of injuries that kept him from 

competing at any consistent level during his rookie season as well: 

About a week before the first Supercross started I broke my [arm bone] and had to 

sit the whole supercross season out. So the year didn’t start out too well but I 

recovered from that and started getting ready for outdoors. Started doing some 

riding with the team in [western state] and the first round came along and I didn’t 

even qualify. I had never not even qualified before. It was such a big shock. I 

didn’t know what to do. I kind of regrouped a little bit and went back for the 

second round and I qualified. 

He went on to say:

In the third round I hit a little bump. I ended up dislocating my big toe and tearing 

some ligament in it. So I sat the weekend out. This happened in the first moto and 



40

I qualified no problem. I went to the doctor and he said I was good to go, I could 

ride. At the same time, in my mind, the pain was so bad that I didn’t really realize. 

I didn’t think in my mind that I could ride, but the doctor said ‘yeah’ so I sucked 

it up. 

Motocross riders appeared to make a distinction between pain with a small p versus pain 

with a capital “p”. Phil continued:

The pain got so bad that I had to [have] cortisone shots almost every weekend. 

We did that, and then I got a [arm injury] at one round, an injury here, bike 

problem there, just things left and right so I was out for the season. About a week 

after [name of race] we went to my doctor and he told me that I would have to 

have reconstructive [name of body part] surgery from the accident from [name of 

race]. It was definitely not a big turn on for me. So I ended up going through 

surgery, so I am going to miss the supercross season again in 2006. So it was just 

a down hill year all together.

It was evident from the co-participants’ interviews that facing and dealing with injuries –

in the manner consistent with the motocross environment – was a stressor for these 

athletes. One of the major themes coming out of the interviews related to how the nature 

of professional sports is demanding both mentally and physically. Motocross riders 

experienced these demands in two distinct ways: (a) via training concerns; and (b) via 

injuries. Riders mentioned how physically and mentally demanding the sport of 

motocross was and how its long and grueling seasons take a toll on the body. Injuries 

were also common. Both of these findings are consistent with previous research. 



41

The importance co-participants placed on the mental demands associated with 

training concerns is also similar to results of earlier studies. Athletes feel that repetitive 

and grueling training sessions and the mental tasks inherent in their professional sport are 

extremely demanding (Scanlan, Stein, Ravizza, 1991; Holt & Hogg, 2002; Noblet & 

Gifford, 2002). In Noblet and Gifford’s (2002) qualitative study, they found that 

professional footballers emphasized the theme, “nature of work”. The “nature of their 

work” was related to long training sessions. However, they also acknowledged such 

things were a necessary evil if they wanted to compete and thrive at the professional 

level. Similarly, while motocross riders in this study felt that it was sometimes hard to get 

motivated for grueling training sessions, the benefits they derived in competition were 

worth the effort.  

Many riders also identified the mental demands associated with injury as having a 

significant impact on their experience of motocross. Specifically, co-participants stressed 

the challenges of returning to practice after sustaining an injury. As would be expected, 

many of the riders became frustrated when they became injured and were unable to 

perform at a consistent level. These findings echo the concerns of golfers and elite level 

skaters in previous studies (Cohn, 1990; Gould et al., 1993; Noblet & Gifford, 2002). 

Further, motocross riders identified the injury itself and the setbacks associated with it as 

additional sources of stress. This may be due to the financial necessity of performing well 

in their sport. In contrast to athletes in other sports (Cohn, 1990; Scanlan et al., 1991; 

Gould et al., 1993), motocross riders derive all their income from their sport. If they 

sustain an injury that keeps them out of action for a prolonged period of time, it can mean 

much more pressure – both mentally and financially - to succeed when they return. 



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Expectations

The third theme, associated with mental demands was expectations, which 

included the subthemes of riders’ self-expectations and the expectations from others.   

Expectations from self. The sub-theme expectations from self described the co-

participants’ experiences of their own expectations for performance. Ernie felt that the 

expectations he had of himself impacted how he mentally approached the sport of 

motocross once he became a professional. He said:

Now I have my own house. It is a job. This is my life. Before when I was younger 

my dad did everything. Now this is what I do, what I focus on, what I have time 

for, this is what I have to have happen. You have to make things happen. There is 

definitely financial stuff you have to think about. The whole atmosphere of riding, 

the pace of riding, the intensity of riding, the way you train is much different than 

when I was an amateur.

Interestingly, Mike suggested that his own expectations to perform changed based on 

who he thought was watching him. He stated:

In ’04 there was a guy for a team that was looking at me. I did good in my first 

outdoor national. And there was a team looking at me at the next national. I went 

there and trained real hard for it and everything – harder than I did for the first 

national. I went there and just blew it. I didn’t get good starts. I was in the back 

and I kept thinking, ‘I got to get up there, I got to get up there’ because they are 

watching me. It seems like the more you have to, the less likely you are going to 

get it or do it. So I was like, ‘I have to get up there’ and so, when it didn’t happen 

right away, I gave up. I didn’t give up, but yeah, I guess you could say my mind 



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gave up. I said, ‘I can’t do it.’ I just kind of rode around. [problems occurred] 

when I had to do good. At the first one, nobody was expecting me to do anything. 

I was just whoever, I was just this guy who showed up. I went out there and ran 

top 5 with the guys. I was just like, ‘let me show you what I can do’.

Mike’s quote also contains his perception that his performance was linked to expectations 

from others. 

Expectations from others.  The sub-theme, expectations from others, described the 

people, such as sponsors, managers, and family members, who expect the riders to 

perform well.  Phil mentioned that once he made the transition from amateur to 

professional the expectations he experienced from others changed. These increased 

expectations altered his perceptions about riding: 

[As an amateur]  I was there just to ride my bike and have fun. I did what I did. 

[Family] had no pressure on me. [They] knew it was my first year on a big bike. 

[They] didn’t put any pressure on me at all. When I started to do very well in the 

amateurs and won my championship, pressure kind of started escalating. People 

then started expecting me to win races and doing good, you know. I moved into 

the pros and got that ride with the factory team. Mentally, I felt so pressured by 

everybody that I almost forgot why I was racing. Not racing for other people, I am 

racing for myself…to have fun. Then, I started not doing well and so much stuff 

happened, so when I moved into the pros I definitely felt like it was a different 

world. It seemed like everyone expected so much out of me. At the same time I 

wanted to perform for them so I didn’t think about why I was doing it. It just 

seemed like everyone expected so much out of me and when I didn’t perform for 



44

them, it was a disappointment for me and them at the same time. I guess mentally 

it was really hard for me, during the 2005 season to take that (Phil). 

Mike also felt the challenge associated with trying to live up to the expectations placed 

on him by others:

Well, pressure from people to do well and um…expectations. Like someone 

expects you to do well… Just pressure like…when you have a job. To do good. 

And so, that is the pressure they put on you to go out and perform. And get top 

10, or win or whatever.  I guess that is the pressure they put on you. Your boss, or 

your team manager, the owner, who[m]ever...you’re mom and dad. Well, you 

know, ‘you got to do good’, so that is going through your mind. ‘I need to go out 

here and, ‘try your hardest’ and give my best. Sometimes, it can be negative. 

That’s a problem. Sometimes, I am thinking, ‘What if I don’t?’, and that will kill 

you every time. Just because then you start thinking about not making it, not what 

you have to do.

When riders started thinking about what not to do, they reported experiencing increased 

performance problems. This finding parallels the experience of elite level skaters and 

professional footballers who reported that striving to meet expectations from others and 

not letting others down were central thoughts in their mind during their worst 

performances (Scanlan et al., 1991; Gould et al., 1993; Noblet & Gifford, 2002). Riders 

in the present study were constantly aware of the expectations to be successful. These 

expectations came not only from themselves, but also from individuals within the 

motocross community (e.g., team managers, sponsors, etc.). With regard to the 

expectations of oneself, some riders identified financial dependence as a self-imposed 



45

pressure. In other words, many applied added pressure to themselves to do well in order 

to obtain the financial rewards that were associated with success. This resonates with the 

findings from the Noblet and Gifford (2002) study regarding financial pressure expressed 

by professional footballers.

Relationships with Others

The fourth major theme associated with mental demands was relationships with 

others, which included the relationships these riders had with team members and 

sponsors from the motocross community. The two supporting sub-themes were: (a) 

teammates; and (b) sponsors.

Teammates. The sub-theme teammates represented the mental demands 

experienced by the motocross riders in terms of their relationship with some of their 

teammates. A number of co-participants mentioned that not having an open relationship 

with members of their team made the process of competing a more daunting task. James 

described how different he felt when he had teammates with whom he could share 

information. He stated:

Last year, I got along with my teammates really well. This year, I am a little more 

competitive with my teammates. It makes it a little bit harder, definitely, being 

competitive with your teammates. Last year, we would all talk and tell each other 

lines and try to help each other out. There was a really good vibe with everyone. 

Then you have someone who you are competing against who doesn’t want to tell 

you nothing. So, you don’t tell them anything. It makes it hard sometimes.

Rob felt frustration with a lack of team relationships as well:



46

When I was on this team, none of us ever rode together. We never did any 

testing…I just don’t believe it was a very organized team. I don’t think they were 

as serious as some of us were about racing…I don’t know too much about it, but I 

don’t think they were 110% behind me and fully into the bike.

This notion of lack of relationships experienced by the riders in this study is similar to 

feelings described by both professional footballers regarding their interactions with team 

members (Noblet & Gifford, 2002) and elite skaters in their interactions with peers 

(Scanlan et al., 1991; Gould et al., 1993). Riders suggested that not having an open 

relationship based on communication – with their teammates and/or sponsors - made the 

process of competing even harder. The sport of motocross is one where the ability to read 

the lines of the track and the tendencies of opponents can be greatly enhanced through 

communication with other riders. When there is a lack of a relationship with teammates it 

may serve to distract riders from concentrating on the task at hand. 

Sponsors. The sub-theme sponsors focused on the influence of sponsors on the 

riders’ ability to perform. Some of the riders mentioned that the inability to procure 

sponsors was especially mentally taxing. They indicated that such a slate of affairs made 

it difficult to focus on the task-related components of racing and training. Phil said: 

Definitely, when you have a ride, there are a lot of things you don’t need to worry 

about. You don’t need to [be] worrying about calling all these sponsors. You just 

deal with one person, which is the manager of the team who controls all the 

sponsors on the team and all the bikes and all that. When you do sign with the 

team, really, a lot of the stress goes away. When you are by yourself you have to 

worry about what kind of gear you are going to wear, what kind of goggles you 



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are going to use, what kind of boots, what type of bike you are going to ride, your 

moto suit, your suspension, what type of pipe you are going to run. Everything. 

You have to find all your own stuff when you are on your own. For the team, they 

give you a package deal; you can make money. When you are with a good team, it 

seems like everything is so much organized so that all I have to worry about is 

training and riding your bike… But it is definitely tough to deal with things on 

your own. I kind of jumped out of amateurs straight onto a team and then straight 

onto another team. It was not like I went from amateur to privateer [rider without 

a sponsor from any team] and knew what it was like. Now, I know what it is like 

to be a privateer and doing it on your own. It is tough and now I have a better idea 

what is going on. 

Phil points out the fact that there is a comfort but also a price to pay when one gets 

sponsorship. In contrast, Rob mentioned the advantages athletes have who are sponsored 

versus those who are not. He expressed his frustration about not being on a team at the 

time of our interview:

Sometimes, it can get a little frustrating, but I haven’t really had to deal with 

much of that. I am sure, for getting on teams and stuff,…I am not on a real team 

so it kind of bums me out sometimes, because I am not there yet. I don’t have all 

the good stuff that they have or get the luxuries they have.

Coping Strategies

The remaining themes and sub-themes concerned the coping strategies these 

professional motocross riders used to deal with the mental demands of their sport. The 

first major theme, thought control, described the riders conscientious attempts to cope 



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and deal with some of the mental demands they experienced as professionals. The three 

related sub-themes were: (a) dealing with distractions; (b) controllable factors; and (c) 

reframing.

Dealing with distractions. The sub-theme dealing with distractions represented 

the motocross riders’ attempts to cope with the distracting and irrelevant thoughts that 

occurred throughout their professional careers. Karl described the importance of putting 

non race-related issues out of his mind when practicing and performing. He said:

You have to be in the right mind state. That way, you are focused when you are 

out there. You got to get a good focus on. You have to kind of, if there is other 

stuff going on in your life or whatever, you have to put that aside. You are there 

to do your job, which is to race. So, you have to put everything else aside and just 

go do your job. I’m not married, but say you were, and your wife was mad at you 

or stuff like that. You can’t let that get in the way. It has to be put on the 

backburner during the race. 

Ernie talked about the importance of being able to block out any distractions prior to a 

race. He said, “Well, when I am on the line, I try to block things out. Usually I have 

headphones on when I come out the tunnel during Supercross. I try to get into a ‘zone’ 

and try to think about other things or focus on the start”. However, James mentioned that 

he struggles to block out the names of some of his opponents at races, which often leads 

him to overthink. He said: 

When you go to a pro race, you know who you are racing against already, you 

know how fast they are. You just think about it so much that it kind of gets to you 



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a little bit. I don’t know. That is probably the worst mental part for me, just trying 

to block out everything and just go ride.  

Rick described his awareness of potential distractions he might face when he said:

Mostly, I guess staying focused, at least that is for me. You know keeping up with 

training, riding, stuff like that, not getting into trouble, or you know, taking care 

of business, stuff like that…staying focused as in… you should be training, 

practicing, taking care of your business work instead of screwing around, or 

partying…stuff like that. [I am] trying to get there, but there are times when the 

mental focus thing sometimes distracts me a lot. I know I can do it, but sometimes 

I get sidetracked or something like that. I am trying the whole mental thing, trying 

to get my head straight sometimes so I can do it like I know I can do it.

Riders discussed how they attempted to “get a good focus” in order to deal with the 

mental demands of their sport. A key component of thought control involved the process 

of dealing with distractions. Several riders mentioned how they attempted to cope with 

distracting and irrelevant thoughts they experienced prior to and during their races. With 

the various distracters that motocross riders have to deal with (e.g., fans, family, race 

conditions, sponsors, etc.) - in addition to their relatively young age - it seems like it 

would be beneficial for them to develop appropriate thought control coping strategies. 

This finding corresponds with previous research with Canadian athletes 

competing in the 1984 Olympic Games (Orlick & Partington, 1988). Successful athletes 

have plans in place to deal with the inevitability of distractions during their performances. 

Similarly, Gould et al. (1993) found that Olympic wrestlers attempted to “deny access to 

their consciousness of distracting, irrelevant, or irritating thoughts” (p. 88). Holt and 



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Hogg (2002) also found that players had to cope, ignore, or block out the distractions and 

irrelevant thoughts they experienced during practice and game sit