Sino-Japanese relations under the American eye : the perception of American foreign service officers in China, 1914-1922

The purpose of this thesis is to examine the attitudes and perceptions of American foreign service officers in China toward Sino-Japanese relations from 19l4 to 1922. From the beginning of the First World War in l9l4 until the end of the Washington Conference in early l922, China was the object of a series of both official and unofficial policy moves by the Japanese. These actions by their military, businessmen, missionaries, diplomats and immigrants were termed, according to one's point of view, cooperation, infiltration, penetration or even outright aggression. This thesis is a study of how a group of Americans--the foreign service officers in China-perceived the Japanese presence within China.

During the years studied, China became the focal point of aggressive Japanese policies as they attempted to gain security and hegemony over East Asia. At the same time, the United States found itself in a singular position to confront Japanese intentions in China, yet chose not to do so. As Japan became more and more entrenched on the mainland, American interests were allowed to diminish.

How did the foreign service officers react to the increased Japanese and decreased American presences? They clearly thought that if these trends were allowed to continue, China would become a debauched nation, useless to America as a strong partner in Asian affairs. The foreign service officers were motivated by differing degrees of the two Open Door principles. The first principle called for China's integrity to be respected by all foreign nations. No foreigner should compromise China's ability to administer its own internal affairs. The second maxim of the Open Door policy exacted an equality of opportunity for those foreigners who wished to invest and trade in China. This second principle was related to the first in that many Americans, including the foreign service officers, believed a secure and unadulterated China would best allow foreign economic penetration. During the course of this study many officers experienced a shift of emphasis from one principle to the other.

Many were also motivated by a desire to reform China. Not only was China to be a purchaser of American goods and a recipient of American loans, but to be a tabula rasa for American reforms. They wished for China to assume many of the cultural trappings which America used and found useful. The foreign service officers became increasingly aware that Japan pursued antithetical cultural goals from those America wished for China to adopt. Believing that the Japanese in China used unfair and underhanded methods to control an ever enlarging segment of China, the officers blamed Japan for the failure of the Open Door principles and the inability of Americans to present an alternate paradigm for reform to China.

The major source for this thesis is the Department of State decimal files, Record Group 59 of the National Archives. Many of these documents are found in the volumes of Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States. Secondary works do exist giving biographical studies of one or two of these diplomats and they were used as needed.

The conclusion of the thesis is that American foreign service officers in China were motivated throughout the eight years studied by an interaction between their personal perceptions of the Open Door policy and apprehensions concerning Japan's threat to it. Most officers felt there was a dynamic struggle to see which "side"--the United States or Japan--could control the Chinese mind and enjoy the most privileges in their country. Because the diplomats and statesmen in Washington were far removed from the "battlefield" of China and would not allow the United States' officers in China to take stronger action against Japan, the American officers in China became frustrated and envious of Japan's gains. . Whatever their individually harbored feelings concerning the Open Door, all agreed that Japan had an ominous sentry beside it which had to be removed.