Exploring the effects of traditional and expert-derived attentional focus cue structures on complex skill learning

Instructions that direct attention externally have been shown to enhance motor performance. However, research on learning effects has produced mixed findings, particularly in skilled populations, and particularly when realistic instructional protocols have been used. Most studies have presented an overly simplistic view of attention, such that all-internal focus protocols are contrasted with all-external focus protocols. Expert performers, however, have reported adopting combined approaches, revealing the need for research to test more realistic instructions. The current project was a two-part study designed to investigate the effects of realistic focus instructions on performance and learning. Study 1 was an exploratory study of expert jump rope athletes’ attentional strategies during the learning process. Results showed that experts focused on a wide range of cues related to control of the upper limbs and the rope as well as the movements of the lower body. Most cues were internal or non-distinguishable (i.e., neither clearly internal nor clearly external) and were often used in the context of stated externally-focused goals. Study 2 provided an experimental test of focus instructions modeled after experts’ foci. Four groups of near-expert jump rope athletes practiced new skills under various instructions. The internal focus (IF) and external focus (EF) groups were given traditional internal and external focus instructions, respectively. The expert modeled (EM) group was given instructions that were based on experts’ reported focus strategies. The expert modeled-autonomous (EM-A) group was given the expert modeled instructional set but was allowed to choose how they used the instructions. All groups completed a baseline assessment, four practice sessions, and a learning assessment. Results of a chi-square test of independence revealed no relationship between group assignment and performance during baseline or practice. There was a significant relationship between group assignment and performance during the learning assessment (p < .05). Specifically, the IF group performed worse than expected while the EM group performed better than expected. Findings support previous research showing internal focus learning detriments compared to external focus conditions and also provide new insight into the advantages of using instructional approaches modeled after experts’ strategies. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.